UC SB  LIBRARY 


Roman  Soldiers. 


HISTORY 


ANCIENT    AND    MODERN 


ROME; 


BY  FRAXCLS  B.  JEFFERY. 


WITH   NUMEROUS    ILLTJSTEATION5. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
P  U  B  L  I  S  II  E  D    BY    J.    L.    G I II  0  N, 

NO.  409  CHESTNUT  STREET. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1854,  by 
J.    L.    GIHON, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  in 
and  for  the  Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


PREFACE. 


THAT  the  principal  events  of  Roman  History  may 
be  condensed  into  a  small  compass,  is  sufficiently 
proved  by  the  manuals  which  have  been  prepared 
by  several  distinguished  writers.  In  this  little  vol- 
ume we  have  endeavoured  to  give  all  that  is  impor- 
tant in  a  concise,  and  at  the  same  time,  clear  and 
pleasing  form.  As  it  is  intended  to  serve  chiefly  as 
an  introduction  to  Pinnock's  edition  of  Goldsmith's 
History  of  Rome,  or  some  similar  work,  we  believe 
it  will  be  found  sufficiently  full. 

Questions  are  placed  at  the  end  of  the  volume 
for  the  aid  of  learners  and  teachers.  The  embellish- 
ments consist  of  authentic  costumes  of  the  military 
classes,  and  likenesses  of  the  emperors.  The  latter 
are  taken  from  medals  which  were,  in  each  case, 
struck  during  the  lifetime  of  the  person  represented. 
Such  illustrations  are  of  themselves  historical  docu- 
ments, and  will  no  doubt  be  satisfactory  to  all  who 
use  the  work. 

1*  (5) 


CONTENTS. 


Introduction , ~ .  Page      9 

Origin  of  the  Romans.— Founding  of  Borne. — Establishment  of 

the  Government  under  Romulus 13 

The  Kings  of  Rome 16 

Formation  of  a  Republic. — Invasion  of  Porsena. — Mutius  Seas- 
vola. — Invasion  of  the  Latins. — Appointment  of  a  Dictator. 
Tribunes  of  the  People. — Coriolanus. — War  with  the  jEqui  and 

Volsci. — Cincinnatus K 

Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables. —  Decemviri. — Siccius  Dentatus.— 
Virginia.— Military  Tribunes. — Censors.— Siege  of  Veii.— In- 
vasion of  the  Gauls.— Destruction  of  the  City  of  Rome — De- 
feat of  the  Gauls  by  Camillas 27 

U'ar  with  the  Samnites  ;  with  Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus;  and  with 

the  Carthaginians.— Fall  of  Carthage 32 

Conquests  of  the  Romans — The  Gracchi.— The  Cimbri  and  Teu- 

tones. — The  Social  War.— Marius. — Sylla 39 

Catiline's  Conspiracy. —  The  first  Triumvirate. —Civil  War  be- 
tween Ctesar  and  Pompey 44 

Defeat  of  Pompey's  party,  and  Death  of  Cato. — Assumption  of  the 
Supreme  Power  by  Csesar.— His  Murder.— Flight  of  Brutus 
and  the  other  Conspirators.  —  The  second  Triumvirate,  of 
Antony,  Octavius,  and  Lepidus.— Battle  of  Philippi.— Death 
of  Brutus  andCassius. — Lepidus  deposed  by  Octavius. — Antony 

and  Cleopatra 48 

A  ugustus. — Tiberius. — Caligula — Claudius 56 

Nero 65 

Galba.— Otho.— Vitellius 70 

Vespasian. — Titus. — Domitian 74 

Xerva.— Trajan — Adrian. — Antoninus  Pius. — Marcus  Aurelius.— 

Commodus 78 

Pertinax.— Diiiius  Jtilianus. — Septimius  Severus.— Caracalla  and 
Geta.  —  Macrinus. — Heliogabalus.— Alexander  Severus.— His 

successors,  to  Probus 84 

Carus.  —  Dioclesian.  —  Constantine.  —  Establishment  of  Christi- 
anity.— Constantine's  successors. — Julian  the  Apostate. — Va- 
lentinian  and  Valens.— Division  into  Western  and  Eastern 
Empires. — Reigns  of  the  last  Emperors  of  the  West. — Fall  of 

the  Empire &> 

(vii) 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

The  Eastern  Empire  usurped  by  Basiliscus. — He  is  starved  to 
Death.— The  Origin  of  the  Decline  of  the  Roman  Empire.— It 
revives  under  Justin  and  Justinian. — Belisarins. — The  Eastern 
Empire. — War  with  the  Persians. — The  Saracens Page  96 

The  Empire  invaded  by  the  Bulgarians. — They  are  defeated  and 
tlicir  Country  subdued  by  Basiling  II.— The  Saracens 109 

The  Turks.— They  invade  the  Empire.— Tangrolipix.— Eudocia.— 
The  Turks  defeated  by  Romanus  Diogenes.— Axan.— The  Em- 
peror taken  Prisoner. — His  Death. — The  Empire  again  in- 
vaded by  the  Turks. — Alexius  Comnenus — Peace  with  the 
Turks 114 

Guiscard's  Expedition  against  the  Emperor. — The  War  ended  by 
his  Death.— The  Scythian  War.— The  Holy  War.— John  tho 
Handsome. — Manuel. — Andronicus. — Alexius  II. — Andronicus 
Emperor.  —  Isaac  II. — Great  Fire  at  Constantinople. — John 
Ducas. — Mourzoufle. — Constantinople  taken  and  plundered  by 
the  Latins 134 

Baldwin  I. —  Henry.  —  Peter  of  Courtenay.  —  Robert.— John  of 
Brienne. — Baldwin  II. — The  Latins  expelled  from  Constanti- 
nople.—Michael  Palaeologus.— His  Treachery  and  Inhumanity. 
— Andronicus 13C 

War  with  the  Turks. — Their  first  Appearance  in  Europe. — Their 

Defeat Constantinople  besieged  by  Bajazet — By  Anuirath. — 

By  Mohammed.  —  Death  of  Constantine. — Constantinople 
taken  by  the  Turks ~.,  ~ — . - — ,  144 


Questions  for  the  Examination  of  Pupils 155 


INTRODUCTION. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  OUTLINE  OF  ITALY. — ITS  DIFFERENT 
NAMES. — ITS  DIVISION  IN  ANCIENT  TIMES. — SUB- 
DUED BY  THE  ROMANS. — BY  THE  BARBARIANS. — 
CHARACTER  OF  THE  EARLY  ROMAN  HISTORY. 

ITALY  lies  between  seven  and  ten  degrees  of  east 
longitude,  and  between  thirty-seven  and  forty-six  de- 
grees of  north  latitude.  On  the  north,  north-west,  and 
north-east  it  is  bounded  by  France,  Switzerland,  the 
country  of  the  Orisons,  and  Germany  ;  on  the  east  by 
the  Adriatic  Sea,  or  Gulf  of  Venice;  and  on  the  south 
and  west  by  the  Mediterranean;  its  figure  bearing 
some  resemblance  to  that  of  a  boot.  Its  length  from 
Aosta,  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps  in  Savoy,  to  the  utmost 
verge  of  Calabria,  is  about  six  hundred  miles ;  but  its 
breadth  is  very  unequal,  being  in  some  places  nearly 
four  hundred  miles,  in  others  not  above  twenty-five  or 
thirty. 

Italy  was  anciently  known  by  the  names  of  Satuf' 
nia,  (Enotria,  Ausonia,  and  Hesperia.  It  was  called 
Saturnia  from  Saturn,  who,  being  driven  out  of  Crete 
by  his  son  Jupiter,  is  supposed  to  have  taken  refuge 
here.  The  names  of  (Enotria  and  Ausonia,  were  bor- 
rowed from  its  ancient  inhabitants,  the  (Enotrians  and 
Ausones;  and  that  of  Hesperia,  or  Western,  was  given 
it  by  the  Greeks  from  its  situation  with  respect  to 
Greece.  The  nameofJtaZia  or  Italy,  which  in  pro- 
cess of  time  prevailed  over  all  the  rest,  is  by  some  de- 
rived from  Italus,  a  king  of  the  Siculi:  by  others  from 
the  Greek  word  italos,  signifying  an  ox ;  this  country 

(9) 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

abounding,  by  reason  of  its  rich  pastures,  with  oxen  of 
an  extraordinary  size  and  beauty.  All  these  names 
were  originally  peculiar  to  particular  provinces  of  Italy, 
but  afterwards  were  applied  to  the  whole  country. 

Italy,  like  most  other  countries,  was,  in  ancient 
times,  divided  into  a'great  number  of  petty  states  and 
kingdoms.  Afterwards,  when  the  Gauls  settled  in  the 
rn,  and  many  Greek  colonies  in  the  eastern  parts, 
it  was  divided,  with  respect  to  its  inhabitants  into  three 
great  parts,  namely,  Gallia  Cisalpina,  Italy  properly 
so  called,  and  Magna  Gratia.  The  most  western  and 
northern  parts  of  Italy  were  in  a  great  measure  pos- 
sessed by  the  Gauls  ;  and  hence  took  the  name  of  Gal- 
lia, with  the  epithets  Cisalpina  and  Citerior,  because 
they  lay  on  the  side  of  the  Alps  next  to  Rome;  and 
Togata,  with  relation  to  the  Roman  gown  or  dress, 
which  the  people  wore;  but  this  last  epithet  is  of  a 
much  later  date  than  the  former.  This  appellation 
was  antiquated  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  when  the 
division  of  Italy  into  eleven  provinces,  introduced  by 
that  prince,  took  place.  Hence  it  is  that  the  name  of 
(.'ixnlpine  Gaul,  frequently  occurs  in  the  writings  of 
the  authors  who  flourished  before,  and  scarcely  ever  in 
the  works  of  those  who  wrote  after,  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus. This  country  extended  from  the  Alps  and  the 
river  Varus,  separating  ,it  from  Transalpine  Gaul,  to 
the  river  ^Esus;  or,  as  Pliny  will  have  it,  to  the  city 
of  Ancona,  in  the  ancient  Picenum.  On  the  north 
it  was  divided  from  Rhcetia  by  the  Alps,  called  Alpes 
Rhteticcc;  and  from  Illyricum  by  the  river  Formic: 
but,  on  this  side,  the  borders  of  Italy  were  in  Pliny's 
time  extended  to  the  river  Arsia  in  Istria.  On  the 
south  it  reached  to  the  Ligustic  Sea,  and  the  Apen- 
nines separating  it  from  Etruria;  so  that  under  the 
common  name  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  were  comprehended 
the  countries  lying  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  called  by 
Pliny  and  Strabo,  the  Subalpine  Countries,  Liguria, 
Gallia  Cispadana,  or  on  this  side  of  the  Po,  and  Trans- 
padana,  or  on  the  other  side  of  the  Po. 

Italy  properly  so  called,  extended  on  the  coast  of  the 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

Adriatic,  from  the  city  of  Ancona  to  the  river  Trento, 
now  the  Frotore  ;  and  on  the  Mediterranean  from  the 
Macra  to  the  Silarus,  now  the  Sele. 

Magna  Graecia  comprised  Apulia,  Lucania,  and  the 
country  of  the  Brutii.  It  was  called  Greece,  because 
most  of  the  cities  on  the  coast  were  Greek  colonies. 
The  inhabitants  gave  it  the  name  of  Great,  not  because 
it  was  larger  than  Greece,  but,  as  Pliny  informs  us, 
merely  out  of  ostentation. 

All  these  countries  were  inhabited  by  a  great  num- 
ber of  different  nations  settled  at  different  times,  and 
from  many  different  parts.  The  names  of  the  most  re- 
markable of  them  were,  the  Aborigines,  or  those  whose 
origin  was  utterly  unknown,  and  who,  consequently, 
were  thought  to  have  none;  the  Sabines,  Hetrtirians  or 
Tuscans,  the  Umbri,  Samnitcs,  Campani,  Apitlii,  Ca- 
labrii,  Lucanii,  the  Brutii,  and  the  Latins.  From  a 
colony  of  the  latter,  proceeded  the  Romans,  who  gra- 
dually subdued  all  these  nations,  one  after  another,  and 
held  them  in  subjection  for  upwards  of  seven  hundred 
years.  All  these  nations  were  originally  brave,  hardy, 
temperate,  and  well  skilled  in  the  art  of  war;  and  the 
Romans  much  more  so  than  the  rest.  Their  subjection 
to  Rome,  however,  inured  them  to  slavery ;  their  op- 
pression by  the  emperors  broke  their  spirit;  and  the 
vast  wealth  which  was  poured  into  the  country  from 
all  parts  of  the  world,  during  the  time  of  the  Roman 
prosperity,  corrupted  their  manners  and  made  them 
degenerate  from  their  former  valour.  Of  this  degene- 
racy, the  barbarous  nations  of  the  north  took  the  ad- 
vantage to  invade  the  empire  in  innumerable  multi- 
tudes. Though  often  repelled,  they  invariably  re- 
turned, and  it  was  found  necessary  to  take  great 
numbers  of  them  into  the  Roman  service,  in  order  to 
defend  the  empire  against  the  rest  of  their  countrymen. 
In  the  year  A.  D.  475,  these  barbarians  -demanded  a 
third  part  of  the  lands  of  Italy  as  remuneration  for  the 
services  they  had  done  the  empire.  This  was  refused, 
and  the  Roman  empire  in  the  West  was  destroyed. 

The  early  Roman  history,  until  the  time  of  Camil- 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

lus,  has  been  con.-iilercJ  by  Neibuhr  ami  Arnold,  and 
by  all  recent  historians  alter  them,  as  chiefly  legend- 
arVi  if  not  fabulous.  It  was  formed  by  the  Romans 
themselves,  from  their  old  national  songs  and  legends; 
and  as  there  were  no  contemporary  historians  in  the 
other  countries  who  would  take  the  trouble  to  contra- 
dict or  gainsay  them,  they  were  made  the  means  of 
raising  the  national  spirit  of  the  Romans,  and  were  ac- 
cordingly so  fashioned.  We,  however,  having  nothing 
better  to  substitute  for  them,  have  followed  the  exam- 
ple of  Dr.  Arnold,  and  given  the  legends  with  this  cau- 
tion, that  the  correctness  of  the  legendary  history  is  not 
to  be  relied  upon;  and  that  until  after  the  age  of  Ca- 
millus,  the  whole  of  the  popular  and  generally  received 
history  of  Rome  is  more  or  less  discredited  by  recent 
inquirers. 


HISTORY  OF  ROME. 


I.      ORIGIN  OF  THE  ROMANS. — FOCXDIXG  OF   ROME. — 
ESTABLISHMENT   OF   THE    GOVERNMENT    UNDIJU   Ro- 


THE  ancient  Romans  claimed  their  origin   from  the 
celebrated  Trojan  prince  yEneas.     The  history  i 
ancestors,  before  the  period  of  the  foundation  of  Rome, 
is  so  mixed  with  fable  as  to  be  very  uncertain.     It  is 
said,  that  after  the  taking  of  Troy  (a  city  on  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor)  by  the  Greeks,  which  is  supposed  to  h;ive 
happened  about  1200  years  before  the  coming  of  Christ, 
./Eneas,  with  his  family  and  a  large  body  of  followers, 
fled  from  the  city,  and  having  prepared  a  fleet,  failed  in 
search  of  a  settlement  in  some  other  land.     They  ar- 
rived on  the  coast  of  Latium,  in  Italy,  near 
of  the  river  Tiber,  and  were  received  in  a  ii  i 
ner  by  Latinus,  the  king  of  that  country.     .<Eneas  mar- 
ried Lavinia,  the  king's  daughter;  and,  upon  his  death, 
succeeded  to  the  kingdom  of  Latium. 

^Eneas  had  two  sons,  Ascaniu?,  who  had  accompanied 
him  from  Troy,  and  ./Eneas  Sylvius,  who  was  born  of 
La  rinia.     Ascanius  resigned  to  his  brother  the  ki 
of  Latium,  as  belonging  to  him  in  right  of  his  r.; 
and  founded  a  new  settlement  for  himself  called 
These  two  states  were  afterwards  united  under  /Eneas 
Sylvius;  Alba  being  the  capital. 

The  descendants  uf  ./Eneas  Sylvius  reigned  in  Alba 
for  nearly  400  years.     One  of  them,  named  Procas,  had 
two  sens,  Numitor  and  Amulius ;  and  was  succeeded  by 
2  (13) 


14  ROMULUS    AND    REMUS. 

Numitor,  the  elder.  Amulius,  however,  drove  his  brother 
from  the  tlirone,  and  sentenced  his  daughter,  Rhea  Syl- 
via, to  perpetual  imprisonment,  and  her  two  infant  sons, 
Romulus  and  Remus,  to  be  thrown  into  the  Tiber.  The 
buvs  \\lio  were  twins,  were  rescued  from  the  water  by 
a  shepherd,  named  Faustulus,  and  nursed  by  his  wifo 
Laurentia,  whose  surname,  Lupa,  gave  rise  to  the  fable 
that  they  were  suckled  by  a  she-wolf. 

Numitor,  though  expelled  from  the  sovereignty  of 
Alba,  was  settled  in  its  neighbourhood  and  a  proprietor 
of  flocks  and  herds.  When  Romulus  and  Remus  giv\v 
up,  they  happened  to  engage  in  a  quarrel  between  the 
herdsmen  of  Aumitor  and  those  of  Amulius,  taking  the 
side  of  the  latter.  Remus  being  taken  and  brought  be- 
fore Numitor,  the  old  man,  struck  by  the  dignity  of  his 
air,  questioned  him  respecting  his  birth,  and  discovered 
him  to  be  his  grandson.  Romulus  and  Remus  under- 
took to  restore  their  grandfather  to  the  throne;  and, 
having  roused  the  people  by  the  relation  of  their  wrongs, 
they  attacked  the  palace  of  Amulius,  and  killed  him, 
after  he  had  reigned  forty-two  years. 

Numitor,  bcinir  thus  restored  to  his  kingdom,  advised 
Romulus  and  Remus  to  found  a  new  colony,  and  be- 
stowed lands  upon  them  for  that  purpose.  A  number  of 
people  followed  them  ;  and  they  went  in  quest  of  a  situa- 
tion for  their  new  settlement.  A  dispute  arose  between 
the  brothers,  as  to  the  spot  on  which  they  should  found 
their  city ;  and  it  is  said  that  Remus  fell  by  the  hand  of 
Romulus. 

Romulus  now  fixed  on  Mount  Palatine  as  the  situation 
of  the  city;  the  compass  of  which  he  marked  by  draw- 
ing a  furrow  round  it.  Wherever  there  was  to  be  a 
gate,  the  plough  was  lifted  up  and  carried ;  hence  came 
the  word  Porta,  a  gate,  derived  from  portare,  to  carry. 

The  time  of  the  foundation  of  Rome  has  not  been  pre- 
cisely ascertained.  The  most  correct  opinion  seems 
to  be  that  it  was  about  the  year  750  before  Christ,  and 
3258  from  the  creation  of  the  world.  This  was  about 
thirty  years  before  Samaria  was  taken  and  the  ten  tribes 
of  Israel  carried  into  captivity  by  the  Assyrians; — about 


ROMl'LCS.  15 

the  time  that  the  government  of  Athens  was  changed, 
after  the  death  of  Codrus,  from  a  monarchy  to  a  republic ; 
and  about  the  period  of  the  war  between  the  Spartans 
and  Messenians. 

Rome,  as  built  by  Romulus,  was  a  poor  village,  con- 
sisting of  about  a  thousand  houses,  or  huts ;  and  the 
habitation  of  the  king  differed  but  little  from  those  of  his 
subjects.  The  principal  inhabitants  were  husbandmen, 
cultivating  the  neighbouring  lands,  which  were  divided 
among  them.  The  town  and  surrounding  territory  ap- 
pear to  have  contained  about  three  thousand  men,  of 
whom  the  population  almost  entirely  consisted. 

When  the  building  of  the  city  was  completed,  Romu- 
lus was  elected  kiiiLT,  and  proceeded  to  establish  a  form 
of  government.  He  selected  a  body  of  the  oldest  inha- 
bitants, to  form  a  council  of  state,  or  senate.  These  were 
called  "  patres,"  or  fathers.  Their  dignity  descended  to 
their  families,  who  formed  the  order  of  patricians  or  no- 
bility, and  were  the  only  persons  whom  Romulus  allowed 
to  become  magistrates.  The  rest  of  the  people  were 
called  plebeians,  or  commoners.  In  order  to  create  a 
pood  understanding  between  these  two  orders  of  people, 
Romulus  formed  that  sort  of  connexion  between  them, 
known  by  the  name  of  patron  and  client.  Every  ple- 
beian was  allowed  to  choose  from  among  the  patricians 
a  protector  or  patron,  who  should  attend  to  his  interest, 
and  defend  him  from  injustice  or  oppression ;  the  client, 
on  the  other  hand,  being  bound  to  respect  and  honour  his 
patron,  and  to  assist  him  when  in  difficulty  or  necessity. 

The  relation  between  them  was  considered  as  having 
something  of  the  sacred  nature  of  the  ties  of  blood  ;  and 
it  remained  in  full  force  for  many  centuries,  even  during 
the  most  troubled  periods  of  the  republic. 

Romulus  also  divided  his  people  into  thirty  curia:,  of 
an  hundred  men  each,  each  of  which  had  a  small  temple 
or  chapel  for  the  offices  of  religion.  These  divisions  re- 
sembled the  parishes  of  England  :  the  chief  difference 
is  one  for  which  they  have  great  cause  to  be  thankful ; 
namely,  that  their  land  is  thus  portioned  out,  not,  as 
Rome  was,  for  the  exercise  of  a  debasing  superstition, 


16  THE  KINGS  OF  ROME ROMCXUS. 

but  for  the  worship  of  the  living  God.  Ten  curice  made 
a  t/t  curia,  or  tribe,  consisting  of  a  thousand  men. 

The  om'ce  of  the  king  was  to  be  the  guardian  of  the 
laws;  to  decide  the  more  important  civil  and  criminal 
:  to  assemble  the  senate  and  people,  in  order  to 
lav  beibre  them  matters  of  public  business;  to  ratify  by 
his  consent  the  laws  and  measures  agreed  on  by  the 
majority  of  the  senate  and  people;  to  command  the 
army  in  the  time  of  war ;  and  to  take  care  of  the  public 
money. 

The  senate  were  to  act  as  a  court  of  justice  in  such 
;ts  were  not  judged  by  the  king  in  person;  to 
debate  upon  matters  proposed  by  the  king,  and  to  decide 
bv  a  majority  of  voices.  The  people,  assembled  sepa- 
rately in  their  different  curia',  were  .  llowed  to  elect 
magistrates,  enact  laws,  and  resolve  upon  measures  pro- 
hy  the  king;  the  consent  of  the  senate  and  king 
lecessary  to  confirm  tiieir  resolutions. 

Such  was  the  constitution  of  Rome,  as  originally 
established,  and  as  it  existed,  with  some  variations, 
during  the  period  of  the  kings. 


II.     THE  KINGS  OF  ROME. 

ROMTILUS  soon  found  it  necessary  to  obtain  wives  for 
his  subjects,  who  were  almost  all  men.  As  the  neigh- 
bouring nations  refused  to  bestow  upon  them  their 
women  in  marriage,  Romulus  determined  to  procure 
them  by  an  unlawful  stratagem.  He  invited  the  people 
of  the  surrounding  states  to  witness  the  celebration  of 
solemn  games;  and.  in  the  midst  of  the  solemnity,  when 
a  great  concourse  of  strangers,  consisting  chiefly  of  a 
neighbouring  people  called  the  Sabines,  was  assembled, 
a  band  of  Romans,  rushing  in  with  drawn  swords,  seized 
all  the  young  women  and  carried  them  off.  Romulus 
gave  them  to  his  subjects  as  wives ;  keeping,  it  is  said, 


THE    KINGS   OF   ROME — NUMA..  17 

to  himself  the  only  married  woman  found  among  them, 
named  Hersilia. 

This  outrage,  which  was  an  offence  at  once  against 
God  and  man,  produced  war  with  the  neighbouring 
nations.  Alter  vanquishing  some  of  the  smaller  states, 
and  removing  tiieir  inhabitants  to  Rome,  which  was 
thus  much  enhiriro.i.  Romulus  had  to  make  head  against 
a  formidable  invasion  of  the  Sabines.  Some  bloody 
actions  took  place ;  when  the  Sabine  women,  who  had 
now  become  reconciled  to  their  situation,  and  attached 
to  their  husbands,  threw  themselves  at  the  feet  of  their 
parents  and  relatives:  and  pleaded  so  effectually,  that 
the  contending  parties  agreed  to  unite  themselves  as  one 
people. 

Rome  became  the  capital  of  this  united  kingdom, 
which  was  iroverned  jointly  by  Romulus  and  Titus 
Tatius,  the  Sabine  king.  Five  years  afterwards  Tatius 
was  murdered,  and  his  colleague  was  suspected  of  hav- 
ing been  concerned  in  his  death. 

Romulus,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  became  tyran- 
nical, and  was  murdered  by  a  conspiracy  of  the  senate. 
They  concealed  his  bo.'y,  and  persuaded  the  people  that 
he  had  been  carried  up  to  heaven.  Under  this  belief, 
he  was  worshipped  as  a  deity,  by  the  name  of  Quirinus. 
He  reigned  thirty-seven  years. 

After  a  short  interval,  called  an  interregnum,  Numa 
Pompilius,  a  Sabine,  was  elected  king.  His  reign  was 
tranquil  and  prosperous.  He  endeavoured  to  soften  the 
manners  of  the  Romans,  encouraged  agriculture,  and 
divided  the  people  of  the  city  into  distinct  communities, 
or  corporations,  according  to  their  different  trades  and 
occupations. 

Numa  reigned  forty-three  years,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Tullus  Hostilius,  the  son  or  grandson,  of  the  Sabine 
woman,  Hersilia.  He  was  of  a  warlike  disposition,  and 
eoon  engaged  in  hostilities  with  the  Albans.  After  some 
time  a  treaty  of  peace  and  union  was  entered  upon ;  but 
the  parties  could  not  agree,  whether  Rome  or  Alba 
should  be  the  chief  city.  It  was  at  last  agreed  that  the 
difference  should  be  settled  by  combat  between  three 
2* 


18  ANGUS    MARTIUS. 

champions  from  each  army.  Each  party  of  champions 
consisted  of  three  brothers:  the  Horatii  on  the  part  of 
the  Romans,  the  Curiatii  of  the  Albans.  After  a  des- 
perate combat,  two  of  the  Horatii  were  slain,  while  all 
the  three  Curiatii  were  wounded.  The  surviving  Roman 
to  separate  his  antagonists,  pretended  to  fly;  and,  as 
llu-y,  weakened  by  loss  of  blood,  were  following  him,  at 
unequal  distances,  he  turned  on  them,  and  slew  them 
one  atler  the  other.  In  consequence  of  this  battle,  Rome 
became  the  capital  of  the  united  nations. 

Tullus  afterwards  subdued  the  Fidenates,  and  some 
other  states  formerly  conquered  by  Romulus,  but  which 
had  revolted.  He  died  after  a  reign  of  thirty-three 
years,  leaving  the  city  greatly  incivusrd. 

The  next  king,  Ancus  Martins,  was  the  grandson  of 
Numa.  Though  naturally  inclined  to  war,  he  endea- 
voured to  encourage  husbandry  anu  the  arts  of  peace; 
but  lie  was  engaged  in  wars  from  the  revolts  and  inroads 
of  the  surrounding  states,  particularly  the  Latins,  Sa- 
bines,  Fidenates,  and  Veientes.  These  he  vanquished  ; 
and,  having  greatly  improved  the  city,  he  died,  in  the 
twenty-fourth  year  of  his  reign. 

Ancus  Martius  left  two  sons,  both  very  young.  They 
had  been  put  under  the  guardianship  of  Tarquin,  a 
Roman  senator,  who  found  means  to  set  them  aside,  and 
assume  the  royal  dignity.  He  was  a  warlike  king,  and 
among  other  military  exploits,  vanquished  the  Hetru- 
rians,  then  accounted  the  most  powerful  nation  in  Italy, 
who  had  invaded  the  Roman  territory  with  a  great  army. 
Having  obliged  this  formidable  enemy  to  sue  for  peace, 
Tarquin  turned  his  attention  to  the  improvement  of  the 
city.  Among  other  great  works,  he  constructed  the 
celebrated  common-sewers,  which  have  deservedly  been 
considered  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  He  was 
murdered  in  the  eightieth  year  of  his  age,  by  the  sons 
of  Ancus  Martius,  whom  he  had  deprived  of  the  king- 
dom. 

On  the  death  of  Tarquin,  the  sons  of  Ancus  Martius, 
instead  of  obtaining  their  object,  were,  through  the  in- 
trigues of  Servius  Tullius,  the  son-in-law  of  Tarquin'a 


SERVIUS   TVLLirS.  19 

wife,  obliged  to  fly  from  the  city,  and  Servius  Tullius 
assumed  the  sovereign  power.  He  was  soon  afterwards 
regularly  elected  by  the  tribes,  but  the  senate  would  not 
assent  to  his  election. 

Servius  Tullius  was  an  excellent  king.  He  devoted 
himself  to  the  improvement  of  the  institutions  of  the 
state  ;  he  added  another  tribe  to  the  three  originally  fixed 
by  Romulus.  The  public  taxes  had  hitherto  been  raised 
at  so  much  a  head,  without  distinction  of  rich  and  poor; 
but  Servius  divided  the  people  into  classes,  according  to 
the  amount  of  their  property,  and  levied  the  taxes  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  property  belonging  to  each 
class.  At  the  same  time  he  bestowed  the  greatest  in- 
fluence, as  well  as  the  largest  burdens,  on  the  richest 
class  of  the  citizens*,  by  making  it  so  numerous  as  to  be 
able  to  out-vote  all  the  other  classes  taken  together. 
He  also  voluntarily  gave  up  a  portion  of  the  royal  power, 
committing  to  the  senate  the  right  of  trying  all  ordinary 
suit*,  and  reserving  to  himself  only  that  of  judging  in 
>f  crimes  against  the  state. 

The  long  and  prosperous  reign  of  Servius  Tullius  had 
a  tragical  end.  He  had  married  his  two  daughters  to 
Lucius  Tarquin  and  Aruns,  the  grandsons  of  the  former 
kin<j.  Tarquin  was  ambitious  and  unprincipled,  and 
Tullia,  the  wife  of  Aruns,  was  of  a  similar  character. 
An  intimacy  was  formed  between  them,  and  they  re- 
solved to  obtain  possession  of  the  throne  by  the  most 
infamous  crimes.  The  one  destroyed  his  wife,  and  the 
other  her  husband,  by  poison :  and  they  obtained  the  old 
king's  consent  to  their  marriage.  They  then  gained 
over  the  senators,  who  had  never  been  favourable  to 
Servius  Tullius,  to  their  interest,  and,  by  means  of 
money,  corrupted  many  of  the  poorer  citizens.  Having 
secured  a  party  sufficiently  strong,  they  threw  off  the 
mask:  and  Tarquin  clothing  himself  in  royal  robes,  pro- 
ceeded openly  to  the  senate-house,  and  seated  himself 

*The  most  considerable  citizens  of  the  first  class  were  formed 
into  an  order  called  equites,  or  knights,  who  formed  an  interme- 
diate rank  between  the  patricians  and  plebeians,  and,  in  time  of 
war,  fought  on  horseback. 


20  TARQUIN. 

on  the  throne.     While  he  was  addressing  the  senate  in 

,-h,  in  which  he  reviled  the  king  as  an  usurper,  a 

favourer  of  the  populace,  and  an  enemy  of  the  patricians, 

Servius  arrived ;  and,  seeing  the  usurper  in  his  chair, 

•eel  to  pull  him  from  it.     A  struggle  took  pl;icc, 

in  which  no  one  interfered  :  Tarquin,  young  and  vigor- 

oii.-,  seized  the  old  man  in  his  arms,  and,  hurrying  him 

through  the  hall,  threw  him  down   the  steps  into  the 

fornm. 

In  the  meantime  Tullia  arrived,  and,  meeting  her 
husband  on  the  top  of  the  steps,  joyfully  saluted  him  as 
kiii'_p,  an  example  which  was  followed  by  a  great  portion 
of  the  senators ;  and  the  old  king  was  instantly  murdered 
by  some  of  the  guards,  who  were  sent  after  him  for  that 
purpose.  The  orders  for  this  horrid  deed  were  no  sooner 
given,  than  Tullia  mounted  her  chariot  to  return  home. 
Her  road  lay  through  the  street  where  her  father's  body 
lay.  The  charioteer,  struck  with  horror,  checked  his 
horses ;  but  Tullia  forced  him  to  go  on,  and  the  blood 
of  the  father  dyed  the  wheels  of  the  chariot,  and  even 
stained  the  robe  of  the  unnatural  daughter. 

Tarquin  proved  a  cruel  tyrant :  he  abolished  the  wise 
regulations  of  his  predecessor,  and  put  to  death  or  ban- 
ished numbers  of  the  patricians  and  most  wealthy  citi- 
zens, that  he  might  take  possession  of  their  estates,  and 
rendered  himself  equally  terrible  and  odious  to  every 
class  of  his  subjects. 

Tarquin  engaged  in  a  war  with  the  Rutuli,  and  be- 
siegei'  their  capital,  Ardea,  which  was  at  a  short  distance 
from  Rome.  While  the  Romans  were  lying  before  that 
town,  Sextus  Tarquin  ins,  the  king's  son,  gave  a  banquet, 
during  which  the  conversation  of  the  guests  happened 
to  turn  upon  their  wives.  Each  extolled  the  good  quali- 
ties of  his  own  ;  but  Collatinus,  a  noble  Roman,  so  far 
surpassed  all  the  others  in  the  praises  of  his  Lucretia, 
that  some  of  the  party,  heated  with  wine,  resolved  to 
mount  their  horses,  and  visit  the  ladies  they  had  been 
talking  of,  Lucretia  in  particular.  Though  taken  un- 
prepared, she  was  found  occupied  with  the  cares  of  her 
household,  while  the  others  were  engaged  in  trifling 


LUCIUS  JUNIUS  BRUTUS.  21 

amusements.  She  charmed  her  visitors  by  the  sweet- 
ness and  modesty  of  her  manners ;  and  Sextus,  influenced 
by  an  unlawful  passion,  gained  admittance  to  her  cham- 
ber in  the  dead  of  the  night.  She  resolved  not  to  live 
after  this  dishonour.  Sending  tor  her  husband,  and  the 
friends  of  her  family,  she  informed  them  of  the  outrage 
she  had  suffered,  exhorting  them  to  avenge  it,  and 
stabbed  herself  to  the  heart.  This  desperate  deed  pro- 
duced the  utmost  grief  and  indignation  in  the  minds  of 
all  present.  Lucius  Junius  Brutus,  a  young  patrician, 
whose  father  had  been  a  victim  of  Tarquin's  cruelty, 
and  who  had  escaped  by  feigning  to  be  an  idiot,  sud- 
denly throwing  off  the  mask,  and  drawing  the  bloody 
dagger  from  Lucretia's  bosom,  swore  by  the  blood  upon 
it,  that  lie  would  pursue,  even  to  death,  the  tyrant  and 
his  family,  and  administered  the  same  oath  to  all  his 
friends. 

The  gates  of  the  city  were  immediately  closed ;  the 
dead  body  of  Lucretia  was  exposed  to  public  view ;  and 
Brutus,  addressing  the  people,  called  on  them  to  unite  in 
overthrowing  so  detestable  a  tyrant.  The  people  joined 
him  with  loud  shouts ;  the  senate  concurred  with  them, 
and,  by  a  decree  of  the  senate  and  people,  T-arquin  was 
deposed  from  the  throne,  and  condemned,  with  his  pos- 
terity, to  perpetual  banishment,  before  he  had  obtained 
the  slightest  information  of  what  had  taken  place. 

As  soon  as  the  army  before  Ardea  heard  of  the  event 
in  Rome,  they  espoused  the  cause  of  the  people  ;  and 
Tarquin,  with  his  wife  and  sons,  fled  i-nto  Hetruria, 
where  he  hoped  to  find  assistance  for  the  recovery  of  his 
throne. 


Plebeians. 


III.  FORMATION  OF  A  REPUBLIC. — INVASION  OF  POR- 
M:NA. — MUTIUS  SCJEVOLA. — INVASION  OF  THE  LATINS. 
— APPOINTMENT  OF  DICTATOR. — TRIBUNES  OF  THE 
PEOPLE. — CORIOLANUS. — WAR  WITH  THE  yEqui  AND 

VOLSCI. ClNClNNATUS. 

THE  hatred  inspired  by  Tarquin's  conduct  extended 
itself  to  the  kingly  office,  which  was  now  abolished.  It 
was  resolved  that  the  state  should,  in  future,  bear  the 
name  of  a  Republic,  and  that  the  highest  functions  of 

(22) 


PORSENA.  23 

the  government  should  be  performed  by  two  mag;s- 
trates,  called  Consuls,  elected  annually.  The  senate, 
the  different  degrees  and  classes  of  the  people,  and,  in 
general,  the  existing  laws  and  institutions,  remained  un- 
changed. 

The  two  first  consuls  were  Brutus  and  Collatinus, 
who  entered  on  their  office  in  the  year  50?  before  Christ. 
Rome  was  now  in  a  dangerous  state :  her  own  territory 
bore  no  proportion  to  the  size  and  population  of  the  city, 
and  was  not  evon  si^iicient  to  supply  it  with  provisions  : 
and  the  neighbouring  states,  who  had  bee'n  compelled 
to  ally  themselves  or  submit  to  Rome,  seized  the  oppor- 
tunity of  forsaking  her,  and  either  sided  with  the  ban- 
ished king,  or  remained  neutral.  Tarquin's  success, 
therefore,  was  probable ;  and  a  conspiracy  was  formed 
within  the  city  to  bring  about  his  restoration.  Among 
the  conspirators  were  some  of  the  m-arest  relations  of 
the  consuls,  including  the  two  sons  of  Brutus.  The  plot 
was  discovered,  and  the  criminals  apprehended.  Brutus 
sat  in  judgment  on  his  sons,  whom  he  condemned  to  be 
beheaded ;  and  remained  on  the  judgment-seat  till  he 
saw  his  sentence  executed. 

Collatinus  soon  afterwards  resigned  the  consulship, 
and  Valerius  (called  Poplicola,  or  "  popular,"  from  the 
manner  in  which  he  was  regarded  by  the  people)  was 
chosen  in  his  room.  Tarquin,  having  engaged  the 
Volsci  to  support  him,  now  advanced  towards  Rome  with 
a  large  army,  and  was  met  by  the  consuls.  A  battle 
took  place,  attended  with  great  slaughter  on  both  sides. 
Brutus  and  Aruns,  one  of  Tarquin's  sons,  encountering 
each  other,  fell  by  mutual  wounds.  The  Volsci,  though 
their  loss  was  not  greater  than  that  of  the  Romans,  fled 
in  confusion,  and  returned  home. 

Tarquin  then  found  another  ally  in  Porsena,  king  of 
Clusium  in  Hetruria,  who  advanced  to  the  gates  of 
Rome ;  and,  after  being  repulsed  in  an  attack  on  the 
city,  by  the  desperate  valour  of  Horatius  Cocles,  he 
closely  invested  it  The  inhabitants  were  soon  in  want 
of  provisions;  and  a  young  patrician,  named  Mutius 
Cordus,  determined  to  relieve  them  by  killing  Porsena. 


24  PORSENA. 

He  made  his  way,  in  disguise,  into  the  king's  tent,  and 
by  mistake  slew  Porsena's  secretary,  who  was  beside 
him.  Being  seized,  lie  avowed  his  design;  and,  ou 
being  threatened  with  torture,  expressed  his  contempt 
of  it  by  thrusting  his  right  hand,  which  had  missed  the 
king,  into  a  pan  of  burning  coals,  and  holding  it  there 
till  it  was  disabled,  declaring  at  the  same  time,  that 
three  hundred  young  Romans  had  sworn  to  take  the 
king's  life  or  perish.  Porscna,  struck  with  admiration, 
restored  Mutius  to  liberty,  and  entered  into  a  treaty  with 
the  Romans.  *  Mutius  acquired  the  surname  of  Scceola, 
or  left-handed. 

Being  thus  abandoned  by  Porsena,  Tarquin  prevailed 
on  the  Latins  to  espouse  his  cause.  The  Latins  being 
more  numerous  and  powerful  than  the  Romans,  they 
endeavoured,  but  in  vain,  to  obtain  assistance  from  the 
surrounding  nations :  and  the  state  was  endangered  by 
a  spirit  of  mutiny  which  was  spreading  among  the  lower 
B.  By  the  existing  law,  no  capital  punishment 
could  be  inflicted  unless  after  an  appeal  to  the  people 
themselves,  among  whom  this  seditious  spirit  was  pre- 
valent ;  and  the  consuls  and  senate  had  thus  no  means 
of  restoring  order  by  punishing  the  guilty.  They,  there- 
fore, represented  to  the  people  the  necessity  of  appoint- 
ing one  magistrate,  who  should  possess  absolute  power, 
for  a  period  of  not  more  than  six  months ;  in  order  that 
he  might  take  such  vigorous  measures  as  the  public 
danger  required.  This  was  agreed  to ;  and  Titus  Lar- 
tius,  one  of  the  consuls,  was  appointed  Dictator. 

Lartius,  on  assuming  his  office,  surrounded  himself 
with  such  an  army  of  officers  of  justice,  guards,  and 
executioners,  that  he  completely  overawed  the  seditious, 
and  restored  tranquillity  in  the  city.  He  then  called 
out  the  whole  male  inhabitants  of  Rome,  amounting  to 
15' ',01)0,  who  were  capable  of  bearing  arms.  The  Latins, 
not  prepared  for  so  vigorous  a  resistance,  made  a  truce ; 
and  Lartius  resigned  his  dictatorship. 

The  following  year,  the  Latins,  having  the  family  of 
Tarquin  with  them,  invaded  the  Roman  territory  with 
an  army  of  40,000  men.  Posthumius,  one  of  the  consuls, 


TRIBUNES  OF  THE  PEOPLE.  25 

was  appointed  dictator,  and  marched  to  meet  the  enemy. 
He  encountered  them  near  the  lake  RegiTlus,  and 
defeated  them  with  great  slaughter.  The  three  generals 
of  the  Latins,  one  of  whom  was  Sextus  Tarqumius,  were 
elain  ;  and  of  the  40,000  men  who  came  into  the  field, 
ecarce  10,000  returned  home.  The  Latins  now  sub- 
mitted to  the  discretion  of  the  Romans,  and  were  ad- 
mitted to  terms  of  peace,  on  condition  of  driving1  the 
Tarquin  family  out  of  their  country.  Tarquin,  now 
without  further  resource,  retired  into  Campania,  where 
he  died  in  the  ninetieth  year  of  his  age. 

Rome,  thus  freed  from  foreign  enemies,  became  dis- 
tracted by  disputes  between  the  nobility  and  the  people, 
which  rose  to  such  a  height,  that  an  army,  which  had 
been  raised  to  repel  some  inroads  of  the  Sabines,  deserted 
its  officers,  and  retired  to  a  hill,  called  Mons  Sacer,  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  city.  A  civil  war  was  on  the 
point  of  breaking  out,  when  matters  were  accommodated 
by  the  institution  of  Tribunes  of  the  People,  who  were 
magistrates  chosen  from  among  the  plebeians,  and  pos- 
sessed of  power  to  prevent  the  passing  of  any  law  that 
might  be  injurious  to  the  people.  This  change  in  the 
constitution  increased  greatly  the  influence  of  the  people 
in  the  state. 

Order  being  thus  restored,  the  Roman  army  marched 
against  the  Volsci,  with  whom  a  war  had  broken  out. 
In  one  day  they  gained  a  victory  over  the  Volsci,  and 
carried  by  assault  their  chief  city,  Corioli :  of  both  which 
actions  the  whole  glory  was  gained  by  Caius  Martius, 
a  distinguished  patrician.  For  his  exploits  Martius 
received  high  honours ;  and  the  consul  bestowed  on  him 
the  surname  of  Coriolamis. 

Soon  afterwards  a  famine  broke  out  in  Rome,  owing 
to  the  people,  during  the  late  disturbances,  having  been 
too  intent  on  their  political  rights  to  think  of  ploughing 
and  sowing.  Hunger  revived  the  spirit  of  discontent ; 
ami  the  tribunes  of  the  people,  who  were  factious  and 
turbulent  men,  stirred  up  the  lower  classes  against  the 
patricians,  whom  they  accused  of  causing  the  public 
distress.  In  these  disputes  Coriolanus  took  a  leading 
3 


26  CORIOLANUS. 

part,  and  thus  incurred  the  especial  enmity  of  the  tribunes, 
who  accused  him  of  aspiring  to  the  sovereign  power, 
and  summoned  him  to  a  trial  before  the  people.  Corio- 
lanus  appeared,  and  defended  himself  with  firmness  and 
vigour;  but  the  influence  of  his  enemies  prevailed,  and 
he  was  unjustly  condemned  to  perpetual  banishment. 

Indignant  at  this  ungrateful  treatment,  Coriolanus 
joined  the  Volsci,  by  whom  he  was  joyfully  received,  and 
placed,  jointly  with  their  general,  Tullus  Aufidius,  at 
the  head  of  the  army.  They  invaded  the  Roman  terri- 
tories ;  and  having  repeatedly  defeated  their  troops,  at 
last  besieged  the  city.  The  Romans  were  in  despair, 
and  sent  deputations  to  Coriolanus,  who  now  exercised 
the  sole  command  of  the  Volscian  army,  imploring  him 
to  spare  Rome ;  but  he  sternly  refused  to  listen  to  them. 
At  length  Veturia,  his  mother,  yielded  to  the  request  of 
the  senate  and  people,  that  she  would  intercede  for  them 
with  her  son  ;  and  accompanied  by  his  wife  Volumnia, 
his  two  children,  arid  a  number  of  the  principal  Roman 
matrons,  she  presented  herself  before  him.  Coriolanus, 
agitated  by  contending  passions,  listened  for  a  long  time 
in  silence  to  the  supplications  of  his  family.  At  length 
he  started  as  from  a  dream ;  and  raising  up  his  mother, 
who  had  fallen  at  his  feet,  exclaimed,  "  O  rny  mother, 
thou  hast  saved  Rome,  but  lost  thy  son  !"  He  then 
gave  orders  to  draw  off  t,he  army,  alleging  that  the  city 
was  too  strong  to  be  taken.  His  colleague,  who  had 
been  reduced  to  insignificance  by  his  superiority  of  cha- 
racter, easily  seized  this  opportunity  of  causing  his 
ruin.  On  their  return,  he  accused  Coriolanus  of  betray- 
ing his  trust ;  and  the  people,  thus  excited  against  him, 
slew  him  in  a  sudden  insurrection. 

After  an  interval  of  some  years,  the  Volsci,  joined  by 
a  neigbouring  people,  the  ^Equi,  renewed  their  hos- 
tilities against  Rome.  Minutius,  one  of  the  consuls, 
marched  against  them ;  but  having  allowed  his  army  to 
be  hemmed  in  by  the  enemy,  in  a  narrow  defile  between 
two  mountains,  they  were  in  a  desperate  situation.  The 
senate,  being  informed  of  this  disaster,  could  find  no  one 
•whom  they  could  deem  capable  of  rescuing  the  army 


CIXCINNATUS. 

but  Cincinnatus,  a  man  who  had  formerly  held  the  highest 
offices  in  the  state,  but  had  now  retired  to  occupy  him- 
self with  the  cultivation  of  his  little  farm.  Him  they 
named  dictator  :  and  those  who  went  to  invest  him  with 
office,  found  him  holding  the  plough.  He  repaired  to 
Rome,  assembled  a  body  of  troops,  and,  putting  himself 
at  their  head,  came  upon  the  rear  of  the  /Equi,  wh« , 
were  blockading  the  Roman  army.  He  instantly  at- 
tacked them;  and  the  army,  finding  themselves  thus 
succoured,  attacked  them  on  the  other  side.  The  .Equi, 
being  completely  defeated,  laid  down  their  arms ;  and 
Cincinnatus,  having  given  up  the  spoils  of  their  camp  to 
his  soldiers,  without  reserving  anything  to  himself,  re- 
turned to  Rome,  and  resigned  the  dictatorship,  after 
having  possessed  it  for  fourteen  days.  The  senate  would 
have  loaded  him  with  riches  and  honours;  but  he  de- 
clined them,  and  returned  to  the  retirement  of  his  farm. 


IV.  LAWS  OF  THE  TWELVE  TABLES.  —  DECEMVIRI. 
—  Siccius  DENTATUS. — VIRGINIA. —  MILITARY  TRI- 
BUNES.— CENSORS. — SIEGE  OF  VEIL — INVASION  OF  THE 
GAULS.  —  DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  CITY  OF  ROME. — 
DEFEAT  OF  THE  GAULS  BY  CAMILLUS. 

ROME  had  now  grown  to  such  magnitude,  that  the 
want  of  a  regular  written  body  of  law  was  much  felt. 
It  was  therefore  agreed  that  ambassadors  should  be  sent 
to  the  cities  of  Greece  to  obtain  from  them  such  laws  as 
experience  had  proved  to  be  most  just  and  useful.  The 
results  of  this  proceeding  were  the  celebrated  laws 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables. 

For  the  purpose  of  considering  these  new  laws,  put- 
ting them  in  proper  form,  and  superintending  their  exe- 
cution, a  body  of  new  magistrates,  ten  in  number,  and 
called  Decemviri,  were  appointed.  Their  power  was  to 
last  for  a  year,  and  was  to  be  equal  to  that  of  the  con- 


28 


THE  DECEMVIRS. 


Standard  Bearers. 


suls,  in  whose  place  they  were  to  come.  These  Decem- 
viri soon  became  possessed  of  absolute  power;  and,  re- 
fusing to  lay  down  their  office  at  the  limited  period, 
conducted  themselves  in  the  most  tyrannical  manner ; 
the  citizens  being  completely  overawed  by  their  numer- 
ous guards,  and  the  idle  and  profligate  crowd,  whom 
they  had  gained  to  their  interest,  and  by  whom  they 
were  constantly  surrounded. 

In  this  state  of  things,  Rome  was  again  invaded  by 


DENTATUS.  29 

her  constant  enemies,  the  ,-Equi  and  Volsci.  An  army 
under  one  ot'  the  Decemvirs,  marched  against  them  ; 
but  tiie  Roman  soldiers  would  not  fight  under  the  orders 
of  a  general  they  detested,  and  abandoned  their 
on  the  approach  of  the  enemy.  At  Rome  the  general 
was  blamed  for  the  fault  of  the  men ;  and  Siccius 
Dentatus,  an  old  tribune  of  the  people,  who  had  long 
been  hated  by  the  Decemvirs,  was  loud  in  his  expres- 
sions of  contempt  for  the  general.  He  was,  conse- 
quently, marked  out  for  destruction ;  and  sent  by  Ap- 
pius,  one  of  the  Decemvirs,  with  some  supplies  for  the 
army.  On  arriving  there,  he  was  despatched  on  an  ex- 
pedition at  the  head  of  a  body  of  men,  who  had  instruc- 
tions to  murder  him.  They  attacked  him  on  the  way  ; 
but  the  old  soldier  placing  his  back  to  a  rock,  defended 
himself  with  such  courage  and  skill  that  he  killed 
and  wounded  a  considerable  number  of  them ;  and 
the  issue  might  have  been  doubtful,  had  his  enemies 
not  climbed  up  the  rock  against  which  he  stood,  and 
crushed  him  \\  ith  stones  thrown  from  above.  The 
Decemvirs  pretended  to  regret  the  death  of  so  brave 
a  man,  but  their  share  in  it  was  well  understood,  and 
rendered  them  more  than  ever  the  objects  of  general 
hatred.  , 

An  atrocious  outrage,  soon  afterwards  committed  by 
Appius,  one  of  the  Decemvirs,  at  last  caused  his  own 
ruin,  and  that  of  his  colleagues.  He  had  observed  a 
beautiful  girl,  named  Virginia,  the  daughter  of  Vir- 
ginius,  a  centurion  (or  commander  of  a  hundred  men), 
who  was  then  with  the  army.  Seized  with  a  guilty 
passion,  he  endeavoured  to  corrupt  her  nurse ;  but,  fail- 
ing in  this,  he  instructed  one  of  his  dependants,  named 
Claudius,  to  claim  the  girl  as  his  slave.  Claudius  ac- 
cordingly seized  her  in  the  school,  where  she  was  play- 
ing among  her  young  companions,  and  dragged  her 
before  the  tribunal  of  Appius,  where  he  asserted  that  she 
was  not  the  daughter  of  Virginius,  but  of  a  female  slave 
belonging  to  himself,  who  had  sold  her  to  the  wife  of 
Virginius;  and  accordingly  claimed  her  as  his  own. 
Appius  at  first  adjudged  that  Claudius  should  take  pos- 
3* 


30  VIRGIMCS. 

session  of  her  till  the  cause  should  be  tried  ;  but  the 
indignation  of  the  people  who  tilled  the  to  rum  was  so 
violent,  that  he  found  it  prudent  to  delay  this  sentence. 
The  day  following'  was  fixed  for  the  trial;  and  the  friends 
of  Virginius  found  means  to  inform  him  of  what  had 
taken  place.  lie  hastened  to  Itnme,  when;  lie  arrived 
in  time  to  appear  at  the  trial,  and  pleaded  his  own  and 
his  daughter's  cause,  in  a  manner  tliut  letl  not  a  doubt 
upon  the  subject.  To  prevent  the  effects  of  his  wofdfl 
upon  the  people,  Appius  hastily  concluded  the  proceed- 
ings by  adjudging  Virginia  to  Claudius,  and  ordering 
the  lictors*  to  carry  her  off. 

Vidimus,  finding  that  all  was  lost,  begged  to  be  al- 
lowed to  embrace  his  daughter  for  the  last  time.  His 
request  was  granted  ;  and,  while  she  was  weeping  in  his 
arms,  he  suddenly  snatched  up  a  knife  that  lay  on  the 
shambles  that  surrounded  the  forum, f  and  plunged  it 
in  her  heart;  then  holding  it  up  streaming  with  his 
daughter's  blood,  he  exclaimed.  "  Appius,  by  this  inno- 
cent blood,  I  devote  thy  head  to  the  infernal  gods !" 
lie  then  rushed  through  the  streets  with  the  bloody 
knife  in  his  hand,  calling  on  the  people  to  rise  against 
their  oppressors.  The  whole  city  was  instantly  in  a 
flame,  which  spread  to  the  army.  Appius  and  another 
Decemvir  were  thrown  into  prison,  where  they  perished 
by  their  own  hands.  The  other  Decemvirs  were  allowed 
to  go  into  banishment.  ' 

The  old  consular  form  of  government  was  now  re- 
stored ;  but  the  disturbances  between  the  patricians  and 
plebeians  still  continuing,  another  change  was  made,  for 
the  purpose  of  putting'  an  end  to  them.  This  was  to  ap- 
point, in  place  of  the  consuls,  a  new  kind  of  magistrates, 
called  Military  Tribunes,  six  in  number,  who  were  to 
have  the  power  and  offices  of  consuls;  but,  from  their 
greater  number,  each  had  less  power  singly.  This  plan, 
which,  after  the  experience  of  the  Decemvirs,  was  not 

*  The  Liclors  were  officers  who  attended  the  courts  of  justice, 
guarded  the  persons  of  the  magistrates,  and  executed  their  orders. 

t'l'he  Ftrrinn  was  an  open  place  in  Rome,  where  public  meet- 
ings and  courts  of  justice  were  held. 


CAMILLUS.  31 

very  liiely  to  succeed,  was  soon  abandoned ;  and  consuls 
once  more  came  into  office :  but  to  assist  them  in  the 
exercise  of  their  duties,  a  new  office  was  instituted,  that 
of  Censors,  two  of  whom  were  elected  every  fifth  year. 

The  Romans  now  resolved  upon  the  destruction  of  the 
people  of  Veii,  who  had  long  been  their  rivals.  They 
besieged  that  city  ;  but  such  was  its  strength,  that  the 
Roman  army  lay  before  it  for  ten  years;  and  the  loss  of 
life  amon?  the  soldiers  was  so  great,  that  it  threatened 
to  drain  Rome  of  its  inhabitants.  A  law  was  therefore 
made,  obliging  the  bachelors  to  marry  the  widows  of  the 
slain  soldiers.  At  last  Veii  was  taken  by  Camillus,  who 
secretly  wrought  a  mine  into  the  heart  of  the  citadel, 
and  thus  gained  admission  for  his  troop.?.  Camillus  was 
equally  successful  in  a  war  against  the  Falisci ;  he  de- 
feated their  army  and  took  their  capital  city,  Falierii. 
He  became,  however,  obnoxious  to  the  tribunes  of  the 
people,  who  excited  the  multitude  against  him  by  false 
accusations;  he  went  therefore,  into  voluntary  banish- 
ment, and  took  refuge  at  Ardea. 

The  Romans  had  soon  reason  to  repent  of  their  ingra- 
titude ;  for  they  were  invaded  by  an  immense  army  of 
Gauls,  under  their  king,  or  leader,  Brenmis.  When  the 
invaders  approached  Rome,  they  were  me*  by  the  Roman 
army,  40,000  strong ;  but  the  Gauls,  who  were  70,000 
in  number,  completely  defeated  the  Roman?,  and  ad- 
vanced to  the  city.  The  Romans  who  were  able  to  bear 
arms,  threw  themselves  into  the  strong  fortress  called 
the  Capitol ;  and  the  old  men,  women,  and  children,  fled 
to  the  neighbouring  towns.  The  city  was  thus  deserted, 
except  by  a  small  number  of  the  oldest  and  most  emi- 
nent senators,  who  seated  themselves  in  the  Forum,  and 
awaited  the  entrance  of  the  enemy.  Brennus  and  hia 
barbarian  troops  were  at  first  awed  by  the  venerable  ap- 
pearance of  these  old  men;  but  this  feeling  was  only 
momentary.  The  senators  were  slain,  and  the  city  en- 
tirely destroyed. 

The  Gauls  now  laid  siege  to  the  Capitol ;  and  the 
Romans,  in  their  despair,  resolved  to  entreat  the  for- 
giveness of  Camillus,  and  to  appoint  him  dictator 


32  PYRRHUS. 

They  found  means  to  inform  him  of  this  resolution  ;  he 
accepted  the  office,  and  was  soon  joined  by  abuve  40,000 
men,  consisting  of  the  remains  of  the  Roman  army,  and 
of  allies. 

In  the  meantime  the  besiegers,  as  well  as  deli 
of  the  Capitol  begun  to  suil'er  grievously  from  famine  ; 
and  both  parties  became  desirous  of  making  a  treaty. 
Accordingly  it  was  agreed,  that  the  Gaul-,  on  receiving 
one  thousand  pounds'  weight  of  gold,  snonld  quit  the 
Roman  territory's.  Hut  when  the  parties  were  met  for 
the  purpose  of  delivering  and  receiving  the  gold,  Ca- 
millus,  who  had  advanced  with  his  army  to  the  gates  of 
.  suddenly  appeared  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  troops, 
and  ordered  the  gold  to  be  carried  back  to  the  Capitol. 
Brennus  and  his  followers  drew  their  swords,  and  a 
skirmish  ensued,  in  which  the  Gauls  were  driven  into 
their  camp.  During  the  night,  Brennus  retreated,  but 
was  pursued  by  Camillus,  who  came  up  with  him  on  the 
following  day  and  totally  defeated  him.  A  great  part 
of  his  army  was  slain  in  battle;  and  the  remainder  were 
cut  to  pieces  by  the  inhabitants  as  they  straggled  over 
the  country  ;  so  that  not  a  single  Gaul  escaped.  These 
occurrences  took  place  in  the  year  390  before  Christ. 


V.     WARS  WITH  THE  SAMMTES  ;  WITH  PYRRHUS,  KING 

OF  EPIRUS;  AND  WITH  THE  CARTHAGINIANS. FALL 

OF  CARTHAGE. 

THE  Romans,  thus  freed  from  the  Gauls,  applied 
themselves  diligently  to  the  rebuilding  of  the  city.  This 
•work  was  hardly  completed,  when  a  combination  of  al 
most  all  the  surrounding  states  was  formed  for  thei« 
destruction.  Camillns  was  again  appointed  dictator; 
and  a  scries  of  wars  took  place,  in  which  the  Sabines 
xhe  Hetrurians,  the  Latins,  the  ^Equi,  and  the  Volsci 
were  successively  defeated. 


PYRRHUS.  33 

After  these  victories,  the  Romans  turned  their  arms 
against  the  Samnites,  a  people  inhabiting  a  large  terri- 
tory in  the  southern  part  oi"  Italy,  now  part  of  the  king- 
dom of  Naples.  They,  too,  were  defeated  and  subdued. 
A  neighbouring  people,  the  Tarentines,  the  inhabitants 
of  the  southern  extremity  of  Italy,  alarmed  at  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Romany  invited  into  Italy  Pyrrhus,  king  of 
Epirus,  a  country  of  Greece,  lying  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  the  Adriatic  Sea. 

Pyrrhus  accepted  the  invitation,  and  arrived  with  an 
army  in  the  Tarentine  territories.  He  encountered  the 
Roman  army  under  the  consul  La'vinus,  and  defeated 
him  ;  but  the  victory  cost  Pyrrhus  dear,  a  great  number 
of  his  best  soldiers  being  slain;  and  he  was  heard  to  ex- 
claim, that  if  he  gained  another  such  a  victory,  he  should 
be  undone. 

This  victory  enabled  Pyrrhus  to  march  almost  to  the 
gates  of  Rome.  But,  by  this  time  the  Romans  had 
raised  another  army,  stronger  than  that  which  they  had 
lost ;  and  Pyrrhus,  unwilling  to  run  the  risk  of  engaging 
it,  retired  to  Tarentum.  Finding  the  Romans  a  more 
formidable  enemy  than  he  had  expected,  he  was  now 
desirous  to  put  an  end  to  the  war.  He  therefore  made 
proposals  of  peace ;  but  the  Romans  answered  that  they 
would  enter  into  no  treaty  of  peace  till  he  had  left  Italy. 
Another  battle  took  place  near  Asculum,  a  town  in 
Apulia,  in  which  Pyrrhus  was  defeated,  and  dangerously 
wounded  ;  but  he  withdrew  the  remains  of  his  army  in 
good  order  from  the  field  ;  and  both  parties  retired  to 
winter  quarters.  The  following  year  a  decisive  battle 
took  place,  in  which  the  Romans,  under  Curius  Dentatus, 
obtained  a  complete  victory  ;  and  Pyrrhus  returned  to 
Greece,  where  he  was  soon  afterwards  killed,  at  the 
siege  of  Ar^os. 

The  Romans  now,  without  further  obstacle,  made 
themselves  masters  of  all  Italy.  Part  of  the  nations 
were  united  to  the  Roman  republic,  and  others  were 
tributary  ;  but  they  were  all  reduced  to  entire  subjection 
to  Rome.  It  was  about  the  year  270  before  Christ,  and 
480  years  from  the  founding  of  the  city,  that  Home 


34 


THE   PUNIC   WARS. 


reached  this  height  of  power.  At  that  time,  it  appeared 
by  an  account  taken  at  Rome,  that  the  number  of  citi- 
zens was  2^0,000. 

About  the  year  256  before  Christ,  war  broke  out  with 
Carthage,  a  powerful  republic  on  the  northern  coast  of 
Africa.0  The  Mamertiires,  a  people  of  Sicily,  being  re- 
duced to  great  straits  by  Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse,  had 


applied  to  the  Romans  for  assistance,  which  was  granted, 
and  an  army  sent  into  Sicily.  The  Carthaginians,  who 
had  considerable  possessions  in  Sicily,  and  were  jealous 
of  the  interference  of  the  Romans,  joined  the  Syracu- 
sans  against  them.  Thus  originated  the  wars  between 
Rome  and  Carthage,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Punic 
Wars. 

The  first  Punic  war  lasted  twenty-four  years.  For 
several  years,  it  was  carried  on,  under  the  direction  of 
Hamilcar,  the  Carthaginian  general,  in  Sicily,  and  in 
the  islands  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia.  In  the  ninth  year 


THE    CARTHAGINIAN    WAR.  35 

the  Romans  invaded  Africa,  having  first  defeated  and 
destroyed  the  Carthaginian  fleet  which  opposed  them. 
Regulus,  the  Roman  general,  defeated  the  Carthaginians 
in  several  battles,  and  advanced  to  the  walls  of  Carthage. 
Elated  \vitli  his  victories,  he  became  incautious,  and  \vas 
at  last  totally  defeated,  his  army  destroyed,  and  himself 
taken  prisoner.  He  was  sent  by  the  Carthaginians  to 
Rome,  to  propose  terms  of  peace,  under  an  oath  that  he 
should  return,  if  the  terms  were  rejected.  He  himself 
persuaded  the  Romans  to  reject  the  terms ;  and  then, 
faithful  to  his  promise,  returned  to  Carthage.  The  Car- 
thaginians, enraged  at  his  conduct,  treated  him  with 
inhuman  cruelty.  His  eyelids  being  cut  oft',  he  was  ex- 
posed to  the  rays  of  a  burning  sun  ;  and  he  was  then 
enclosed  in  a  cask,  the  sides  of  which  were  full  of  iron 
spikes,  till  he  expired.  The  war,  during  its  remaining 
period,  was  carried  on  with  various  success  ;  but  the 
Carthaginians  suffered  so  much,  that  they  were  obliged 
to  make  peace  on  very  disadvantageous  terms ;  among 
which  were  the  payment  of  a  large  sum  of  money,  and 
the  entire  abandonment  of  the  island  of  Sicily. 

This  war  being  concluded,  the  Romans  greatly  ex- 
tended their  conquests  in  other  quarters.  A  large  army 
of  Gauls  having  invaded  Italy,  it  was  defeated  and 
almost  entirely  destroyed:  and  the  Romans,  entering 
Gaul,  subdued  a  part  of  that  country,  and  reduced  it  to 
a  Roman  province.  They  also  made  themselves  mas- 
ters of  the  islands  of  Corsica,  Sardinia,  and  Malta. 

After  the  peace  of  twenty-three  years,  the  second 
Punic  war  broke  out.  During  the  interval  of  peace, 
Rome  became  jealous  of  the  extensive  conquests  which 
the  Carthaginians  were  making  in  Spain ;  and  entered 
into  a  treaty  with  them,  for  the  purpose  of  limiting  the 
extent  of  their  possessions  in  that  country.  Hannibal, 
the  Carthaginian  general,  made  an  attack  upon  Sagun- 
tum,  a  city  protected  by  the  treaty ;  and  the  Cartha- 
ginians having  refused  to  give  satisfaction  for  this  breach 
of  faith,  war  was  declared. 

Hannibal  determined  to  invade  the  Roman  territories. 
Leaving  Spain,  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  60,000  men, 


36  THE    CARTHAGINIAN   WAR. 

he  crossed  the  Pyrenean  mountains;  and,  traversing  the 
southern  part  or'  Caul,  cro.--.sed  the  Alps  and  entered 
Italy.  1»  this  passage,  his  army  endured  such  dreadful 
hardships,  that,  on  arriving  in  Italy,  he  found  the  num- 
ber of  his  foot  reduced  from  50,000  to  20,000  ;  and  the 
survivors  were  wasted  by  fatigue  and  famine.  Having 
refreshed  his  troops,  he  marched  forward  ;  and  defeated 
the  Romans  in  a  succession  of  bloody  engagements ;  in 
the  last  of  which,  near  the  lake  Thrasy menus,  the 
Roman  consul  Flaminius,  and  15,000  of  his  men,  were 
slain. 

The  Romans  now  named  Fabius  Maximus  dictator ; 
who,  following  the  plan  of  watching  the  movements  of 
the  Carthaginians,  cutting  off  their  stragglers,  and 
seizing  their  supplies,  without  suffering  himself  to  be 
brought  to  an  engagement,  greatly  distressed  them.  By 
this  conduct,  however,  he  raised  discontents  in  his  own 
army,  and  was  recalled  to  Rome. 

The  following  year,  the  Romans  took  the  field  with 
an  army  of  above  80,000  men,  under  the  consuls  jEmi- 
lius  Paulus  and  Terentius  Varro.  Hannibal's  army 
amounted  only  to  50,000 ;  but  he  was  stronger  in  ca- 
valry than  the  Romans.  The  armies  met  at  Cannae,  a 
town  in  Apulia ;  and  a  battle  ensued,  which  is  one  of 
the  most  bloody  recorded  in  history.  The  Romans  were 
totally  routed,  with  the  loss  of  50,000  men ;  and  the 
consul  ^Emilius,  with' his  most  distinguished  officers, 
were  among  the  slain. 

Ailer  this  great  battle,  a  considerable  part  of  Italy 
submitted  to  Hannibal.  But  from  this  time  his  fortune 
declined.  Owing  to  the  influence  at  \orne  of  an  un- 
friendly faction,  proper  means  were  not  taken  to  recruit 
his  army,  which  now  amounted  only  to  35,000  men. 
With  this  small  army  Hannibal  maintained  himself 
against  all  the  forces  that  Rome  could  bring  against 
him,  even  though  commanded  by  Marcellus,  one  of  their 
ablest  generals.  He  fought  many  battles,  in  which  he 
was  sometimes  victorious,  and  sometimes  defeated ;  and, 
in  the  ninth  year  of  the  war,  drew  into  an  ambuscade 
and  killed  Marcellus  himself.  Ills  brother  Asdrubal, 


THE    CARTHAGIMAN    WAR. 


37 


Hannibal. 

who  was  marching  to  his  assistance  with  an  army  from 
Spain,  was  met  by  a  Roman  army  in  the  nortli  of  Italy, 
defeated  and  slain.  Still  Hannibal  sustained  himself  in 
such  a  position  that  the  Romans  did  not  venture  to  at- 
tack him. 

In  the  mean  time  the  Roman  general,  Scipio  (after- 
wards surnamed  Africanus},  had  driven  the  Carthagi- 
nians out  of  Spain,  and  had  passed  over  into  Africa. 
The  Carthaginians,  alarmed  for  their  own  safety,  re- 
called Hannibal  from  Italy.  Having  arrived  at  Car- 
thage, he  immediately  marched  against  Scipio,  whom 
he  met  at  Zama,  about  live  days'  journey  from  the  city. 
A  battle  took  place,  in  which  Hannibal  was  completely 
defeated,  with  the  loss  of  20,000  slain,  and  almost  as 
many  taken  prisoners,  while  the  loss  on  the  part  of  the 
Romans  amounted  only  to  about  2000  men.  The  Car- 
thaginians now  sued  for  peace,  which  was  granted  them 
on  severe  terms.  They  agreed  to  pay  a  large  sum  of 
money  :  to  deliver  up  their  navy  ;  to  engage  in  no  war 
without  the  consent  of  the  Romans  ;  and  to  assist  them 
whenever  called  upon. 

After  this  peace  was  concluded,  Masinissa,  king  of 
Numidia,  unjustly  seized  a  part  of  the  Carthaginian  ter- 
ritory, and  was  supported  by  the  Romans,  with  whom 


38  THE   CARTHAGINIAN   WAR. 

ne  was  in  alliance.  The  Cartnaginians  complained  of 
this  breach  of  the  treaty ;  but  in  vain.  The  Romans, 
who  only  wanted  a  pretext  for  the  total  destruction  of 
Carthage,  pretended  to  feel  great  indignation  at  their 
complaints.  For  a  number  of  years  the  Carthaginians 
submitted  to  a  course  of  encroachments  on  the  part  of 
Masinissa  ;  till,  at  last,  their  repeated  demands  for  jus- 
tice were  answered  by  the  Romans  declaring  wur 
against  them.  A  large  army  was  sent  to  Africa  :  and 
the  generals  had  secret  instructions  from  the  senate,  not 
to  conclude  their  operations  but  by  the  destruction  of 
Carthage. 

On  their  arrival  in  Africa,  the  Roman  commanders 
received  a  deputation  from  Carthage,  offering  submis- 
sion. The  Romans,  concealing  their  secret  inttntions, 
and  with  a  view  of  deceiving  the  Carthaginians,  made 
a  number  of  demands  upon  them  ;  taking  care  that  one 
demand  was  yielded  before  the  next  was  made.  The 
last  of  these  demands  was,  that  they  should  deliver  up 
their  arms ;  and  when  they  had  done  so,  they  were  next 
ordered  to  leave  their  city.  The  despair  occasioned  by 
this  dreadful  command,  restored  the  courage  of  the  Car- 
thaginians. They  resolved  to  defend  themselves  to  the 
last  extremity ;  they  made  new  arms,  strengthened 
their  ramparts,  and  laid  in  provisions ;  and  when  the 
Romans  assaulted  the  city,  they  were  repulsed  with 
much  slaughter.  At  the  same  time,  the  Carthaginian 
general,  Asdrubal,  who  had  raised  a  considerable  army 
in  the  country,  gave  the  Romans  such  employment,  that 
they  were  unable  to  make  any  further  attack  on  the 
city. 

The  following  year  Scipio  jEmilianus  was  chosen 
consul,  and  sent  to  take  the  command  of  the  army  in 
Africa.  He  closely  besieged  the  city  of  Carthage,  block- 
ing up  every  avenue  to  it  both  by  land  by  sea.  In  this 
manner  he  remained  before  the  town,  during  the  win- 
ter, till  the  inhabitants  were  reduced  to  extremity  by 
famine.  Early  in  the  spring  he  determined  on  an  assault ; 
and,  having  made  a  feigned  attack,  so  as  to  draw  away 
the  defenders  from  one  of  the  principal  gates,  he  broke  it 


FALL   OF   CARTHAGE.  39 

down  and  entered  the  city.  A  dreadful  scene  of  slaughter 
now  took  place.  The  Romans  in  advancing  through 
the  streets  in  order  to  attack  the  citadel,  had  to  contest 
every  step  with  the  Carthaginians,  who  poured  darts 
and  stones  upon  them  from  the  houses.  They  at  length 
established  themselves  before  the  citadel :  and  ./Emi- 
lianus  ordered  the  adjoining  quarter  of  the  city  to  be 
set  on  fire.  Multitudes  of  the  inhabitants  perished  in 
the  flames,  or  by  the  fall  of  the  houses.  When  the  fire 
ceased,  ^Emilianus  opened  a  large  space  by  removing 
the  rubbish,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  bring  his  whole 
army  before  the  citadel.  Its  defenders,  seeing  resistance 
was  vain,  surrendered  themselves ;  and  their  lives  were 
granted  to  all  except  a  body  of  Roman  deserters.  These 
took  refuge  in  a  temple;  and  being  there  attacked  by 
the  Romans,  set  fire  to  it,  and  perished  in  the  flames. 
The  city  was  then  plundered  ;  its  towers  and  ramparts 
levelled  with  the  ground ;  and  its  destruction  completed 
by  fire,  not  a  house  being  left  standing. 

Thus  fell  the  once  powerful  state  of  Carthage,  and  its 
capital,  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  magnificent  cities  of 
ancient  times.  It  was  above  twenty  miles  in  circum- 
ference, and,  at  the  beginning  of  this  war,  contained 
700,000  inhabitants.  The  treasure  carried  off  by  ^Emi- 
lianus,  even  after  the  soldiers  had  plundered  the  city, 
amounted  to  four  millions  and  a  half  pounds  of  silver. 
The  fall  of  Carthage  took  place  in  the  year  146  before 
Christ. 


VI.  CONQUESTS  -OF  THE  ROMANS. — THE  GRACCHI. — 
THE  CIMBRI  AND  TEUTONES. — THE  SOCIAL  WAR. — 
MARIUS. — SYLLA. 

AFTER  the  destruction  of  Carthage,  the  Romans  went 
on  extending  their  conquests  in  all  directions.  They 
completely  subdued  Spain,  and  rendered  it  a  Roman  pro- 
vince. Under  pretence  of  supporting  the  Grecian  states 


40  THE    GRACCHI. 

against  the  Macedonians,  they  first  conquered  that  peo- 
ple, and  reduced  their  country  to  the  condition  of  a 
Roman  province,  and  afterwards  subdued  all  the  other 
states  of  Greece.  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,  a  powerful 
kingdom  of  Asia,  lying  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  having  given  protection  to  Hannibal,  the 
Carthaginian  general,  \vho  fled  to  him  after  he  was  de- 
feated by  the  Romans  at  Zama,  was  persuaded  by  Han- 
nibal to  undertake  a  war  against  the  Romans.  Its  re.-ult 
was,  that  Antiochus  was  defeated,  and  rendered  a  trib- 
utary of  Rome ;  and  soon  afterwards  Syria  became  a 
Roman  province. 

During  these  conquests,  Rome  was  incessantly  dis- 
tracted by  dissensions  among  the  different  classes  at 
home.  Soon  after  the  fall  of  Carthage,  the  sedition  of  the 
Gracchi  broke  out.  Tiberius  and  Caius  Gracchus  were 
two  brothers,  descended  from  a  family,  which,  though 
plebeian,  was  highly  distinguished.  Tiberius  Gracchus, 
at  an  early  age,  made  himself  remarkable  for  his  hatred 
of  the  patricians,  and  his  zeal  for  the  privileges  of  the 
plebeians.  Having  been  appointed  one  of  the  tribunes 
of  the  people,  he  determined  to  revive  an  old  law,  which 
had  been  out  of  use  during  the  last  two  or  three  hun- 
dred years,  namely,  that  no  citizen  should  possess  more 
than  five  hundred  acres  of  land.  Many  of  the  patricians 
possessed  estates  far  beyond  that  extent ;  and  Gracchus 
proposed  that  those  who  possessed  more  than  five  hun- 
dred acres  should  part  witli  the  overplus,  which  should  be 
divided  among  the  poorer  citizens.  This  proposal  was 
eagerly  received  by  the  multitude,  and  violently  opposed 
by  the  patricians,  and  even  by  Octavius  Cecina,  the 
other  tribune  of  the  people.  But  Gracchus,  by  his 
speeches,  stirred  up  the  people  to  a  degree  that  rendered 
all  opposition  vain.  They  first  deprived  Octavius  of  his 
office  of  tribune,  and  then  passed  the  law ;  the  deposed 
tribune  being  with  difficulty  rescued  from  their  fury. 

When  the  year  of  his  office  was  about  to  expire, 
Gracchus  was  anxious  to  be  again  elected,  being  aware 
that  his  continuance  in  office  was  necessary  for  his  safety. 
When  the  day  of  election  came,  he  was  keenly  opposed  ; 


THE  CIMBRI  AXD  TEUTONES.  41 

and  the  tumult  \vas  so  great  that  it  was  necessary  to 
dismiss  the  assembly  till  next  day.  On  the  following 
day,  at  the  same  time  that  the  people  met  tor  the  elec- 
tion, the  senators  assembled  in  an  adjoining  temple ; 
and  apprehending  the  most  fatal  consequences  from  the 
inflamed  passions  of  the  multitude,  if  Gracchus  were 
permitted  longer  to  work  upon  them,  they  determined  to 
dissuhc  the  meeting,  and  seize  Gracchus  by  force.  At 
the  head  of  those  who  urged  this  measure,  was  Scipio 
Nasica,  a  relative  of  the  great  Scipio  Africanus.  He, 
leaving  the  temple  at  the  head  of  a  number  of  senators, 
attended  by  a  large  body  of  their  clients  and  dependants, 
entered  the  place  of  meeting,  and  attacking  the  unarmed 
crowd  with  clubs  and  staves,  easily  dispersed  it.  Grac- 
chus himself,  endeavouring  to  escape,  fell  over  one  of 
the  benches,  and  was  killed  by  the  blows  of  his  enemies. 
The  tumult  continued  after  his  death  ;  and  about  300  of 
his  friends  lost  their  lives.  Their  bodies,  with  that  of 
Gracchus,  were  thrown  into  the  Tiber.  This  happened 
in  the  year  133  before  Christ.  Twelve  years  afterwards, 
his  brother,  Caius  Gracchus,  having  again  attempted  to 
get  the  above  law  revived,  a  price  was  set  upon  his  head, 
and  he  wa?  put  to  death  by  the  consul  Opimius. 

In  the  year  101,  the  safety  of  Rome  was  endangered 
by  a  formidable  invasion  of  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones, 
nations  who  inhabited  parts  of  the  country  now  known 
by  the  name  of  Germany.  Before  they  could  reach 
however,  the  Italian  territory,  they  were  met  in  Trans- 
alpine Gaul  (or  Gaul  beyond  the  Alps),  by  the  consul 
Caius  Marius,  and  defeated  with  immcn&e  slaughter  ;  not 
less  than  100,000  of  them  being  slain  in  the  battle. 
Their  numbers,  it  is  said,  were  so  prodigious,  that  the 
Teutones  alone  were  six  whole  days  in  marching  past 
the  Roman  camp.  The  inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring 
country  for  a  long  time  used  the  bones  of  the  slain  as 
fences  for  their  vineyards. 

This  war  put  a  stop,  for  some  time,  to  the  discords  at 

Rome ;  but,  on  its  being  ended,  they  broke  out  more 

violently  than  ever.     It  being  observed  by  the  consuls 

that  many  persons  belonging  to  allied  states  resided  at 

4* 


42  MARIUS — SYLLA. 

Rome,  pretending  to  be  Roman  citizens,  and  that  they 
contributed  to  increase  the  power  of  the  plebeians,  by 
generally  voting  on  their  side,  a  decree  was  passed,  order- 
ing all  those  persons  to  leave  Rome.  This  was  so  much 
resented  by  the  Italian  states  to  whom  they  belonged, 
that  ino.-t  of  them  revoked,  and  formed  themselves  into 
si.'lic,  in  opposition  to  tli;it  ot  Rome.  A  war,  con- 
sequently, broke  out  witli  them,  in  \vli:ch  the  Romans 
were  repeatedly  defeated ;  but  LuciiK-  Sylla,  having 
taken  the  command  of  the  Roman  armies,  at  lust  re- 
duced the  revolted  states  to  subjection.  This  war  is 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Social  War. 

^iarius,  the  conqueror  of  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones, 
and  Sylla,  were  now  the  most  powerful  persons  in  the 
state.  They  became  rivals;  .Manns  espousing  the  cause 
of  the  people,  and  Sylla  adhering  to  the  patricians. 
Each  of  them  was  at  the  head  of  a  strong  party  ;  and 
their  disputes  produced  a  civil  war,  in  which  sometimes 
the  one  leader,  sometimes  the  other,  was  successful, 
while  his  opponent  was  driven  from  Rome.  When 
jMarius's  party  gained  the  advantage,  and  recalled  him 
to  Rome,  he  resolved  to  murder,  without  mercy,  all  the 
senators  of  Sylla's  party.  A  general  slaughter  com- 
menced, which  lasted  live  days,  during  which  the 
greatest  part  of  those  senators  was.  slain,  their  heads 
stuck  upon  poles,  and  their  bodies  thrown  into  the 
ibrum,  to  be  devoured  'by  dogs.  These  bloody  scenes 
were  not  confined  to  Rome;  the  soldiers  were  dis- 
persed all  over  the  country,  in  search  of  those  who  fled, 
and  murdered  them  wherever  they  could  find  them. 

While  Marius  was  governing  at  Rome,  Sylla  was 
pursuing  a  victorious  career  in  the  cast.  Mithridates, 
king  of  Pontus,  (a  powerful  kingdom  of  Asia,  lying  on 
the  south  side  of  the  Euxine  or  Black  Sea,)  had  sub- 
dued Greece ;  and  Sylla  was  sent  to  command  the  Roman 
army  employed  against  him.  After  several  victories  over 
Alithridates,  Sylla  completely  defeated  him  at  Orcho- 
menus,  and  compelled  him  to  sue  for  peace.  Hearing  of 
the  transactions  at  Rome,  and  the  murder  of  his  friends, 


SYLLA.  43 

Sylla  concluded  a  treaty  with  Mithridates,  and  marched 
towards  Rome.  By  this  time  Marius  had  died  ;  ami  his 
son,  who  had  succeeded  him  as  consul,  having1  met  Sylla, 
was  completely  defeated,  and  killed  himself  to  avoid 
falling  into  the  hands  of  his  enemy.  Sylla  now  entered 
Rome  without  opposition,  and  assumed  the  absolute 
control  of  the  state.  His  cruelties  were  more  atrocious, 
because  more  cool  and  deliberate,  than  those  of  his  rival. 
He  ordered  8000  persons,  who  had  thrown  themselves 
on  his  mercy,  to  be  put  to  death  in  the  Campus  Martins, 
an  open  space  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  senate-house. 
In  the  meantime  he  entered  the  senate,  and  began  to 
address  the  assembly.  While  he  was  speaking,  the 
senators  were  thrown  into  confusion  by  the  horrid 
shrieks  of  the  sufferers ;  but  Sylla  sternly  desired  them 
to  listen  to  him,  instead  of  attending  to  the  noise  made 
by  a  few  criminals,  who  were  undergoing  punishment  by 
his  orders. 

Having  cut  off  every  one  whom  he  thought  capable 
of  opposing  him,  Sylla  caused  himself  to  be  declared 
Perpetual  Dictator,  or,  in  other  words  absolute  monarch 
of  Rome.  This  revolution  took  place  in  the  year  80  be- 
fore Christ:  and  it  may  be  considered  as  the  termina- 
tion of  the  republic. 

Sylla's  love  of  debauchery  overcame  his  love  of 
power.  He  unexpectedly  resigned  his  dictatorship  at 
the  end  of  two  years,  and  retired  into  the  country, 
where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  luxurious 
indulgence.  He  died  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  his  age. 


Julius  Cmsar. 


VII.  CATILINE'S  CONSPIRACY. — THE  FIRST  TRIUMVIR- 
ATE.— CIVIL  WAR  BETWEEN  CAESAR  AND  POMPEY. 

AFTER  the  death  of  Sylla,  Marcus  Licinius  Crassus 
and  Cneius  Pompeius  (or  Pompcy)  became  rivals  for 
Bupreme  power.  Both  of  them  were  already  distin- 
guished by  their  military  exploits.  Pompey  had  subdued 
an  extensive  rebellion  in  Spain ;  and  Crassus  had  do- 

(44) 


THE    FIRST   TRIUMVIRATE.  45 

feated  a  great  insurrection  of  slaves  under  Spartacus. 
They  were  made  joint  consuls ;  and  Pompey  being  ap^ 
pointed  general  of  the  forces  in  Asia,  went  to  prosecute 
the  Roman  conquests  in  that  part  of  the  world,  while 
Crassus  remained  at  Rome. 

At  this  time  Rome  was  nearly  overturned  by  a  con- 
spiracy formed  by  Lucius  Catiline.  His  object  v 
murder  the  consuls  and  the  greatest  part  of  the  senators, 
to  set  fire  to  the  city,  and  then  to  seize  the  government. 
The  plot  was  discovered  by  the  vigilance,  and  frustrated 
by  the  prudence,  of  Cicero,  the  great  orator,  statesman, 
and  philosopher,  at  that  time  one  of  the  consuls.  He 
iled  the  senate,  and  disclosed  to  them  the  plot  of 
Catiline  and  the  other  conspirators.  After  an  ineffectual 
attempt  to  deny  the  charge,  Catiline  openly  took  the 
field  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  army  ;  but  he  was 
soon  defeated  and  slain. 

During  the  absence  of  Pompey,  Julius  Ccesar  became 
the  rival  of  Crassus  in  the  affections  of  the  people.  After 
Pompey's  return,  Caesar  proposed  that  they  should  unite, 
for  the  purpose  of  jointly  acquiring  the  supreme  power. 
They  accordingly  formed  an  association,  or  Triumvirate, 
which  was  for  a  long  time  kept  secret.  Caesar  was  made 
one  of  the  consuls,  and  undertook  a  military  expedition 
into  Gaul,  where  his  exploits  gained  him  the  highest 
fame.  Crassus  went,  at  the  head  of  a  great  army,  to 
make  war  upon  the  Parthians,  a  powerful  eastern  peo- 
ple, by  whom  he  was  defeated  and  slain. 

Caesar  and  Pompey  were  now  left  to  contend  for  the 
supreme  power.  Ceesar  continued,  however,  to  prose- 
cute the  war  in  Gaul,  till  that  country  was  reduced  to  a 
Roman  province.  From  Gaul  he  crossed  over  into  Bri- 
tain, and  in  two  expeditions  subdued  that  island,  after 
considerable  resistance.  So  rapid  was  his  victorious 
career,  that  in  less  than  nine  years  he  conquered,  be- 
sides Britain,  all  that  country  which  extends  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  German  Sea. 

Pompey  then  obtained  from  the  senate  an  order  that 
Caesar  should  disband  his  army;  which  Caesar  refused 
to  do,  so  long  as  Pompey  remained  at  the  head  of  his 


46  WAR   BETWEEN   CJESAR   AND   POMPEY. 


troops.  The  senate  then  deprived  Cjesdr  of  his  office 
of  governor  of  Gaul  ;  and  intrusted  Pompey  with  the  de- 
fence of  the  republic  against  him. 

Caesar  immediately  marched  towards  Rome.  Having 
arrived  at  the  Rubicon,  a  small  river  which  formed  the 
boundary  of  Italy,  the  thought  of  the  calamities  he  was 
about  to  bring  upon  his  country  made  him  hesitate  to 
pass  the  river.  The  reflection  that  his  own  safety  de- 
pended on  his  going  forward,  determined  him  ;  and,  ex- 
claiming, "The  die  is  cast!"  he  threw  himself  into  the 
river,  and  was  followed  by  his  troops.  He  then  pushed 
forward  to  Rome  ;  and  Pompey  finding  himself  unable 
to  oppose  him,  embarked,  with  his  army,  for  Dyrra- 
chium,  a  town  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Adriatic  Sea; 
to  which  place  the  consuls,  with  a  considerable  body  of 
.  had  already  retired. 

:r,  on  arriving  in  Rome,  assumed  the  entire  con- 
trol of  the  state.  He  made  immense  preparations  for 
war  against  Pompey  ;  sending  armies  into  all  the  pro- 
vinces where  Pompey  had  established  governors;  and 
icserving  to  himself  the  conduct  of  tha  war  in  Spain. 
Tims  the  civil  war  between  these  great  rivals  extended 
over  the  greatest  part  of  the  tiien  known  world. 

•ir,  on  entering  Spain,  had  to  contend  with  very 
powerful  armies,  under  three  of  Pompey's  generals,  and 
was  at  first  reduced  to  great  straits.  By  the  most  sur- 
prising exertions  of  courage  and  military  skill,  however, 
he  overcame  all  his  difficulties,  and  in  a  few  months 
drove  the  whole  of  Pompey's  troops  out  of  Spain.  He 
then  returned  to  Rome,  and  made  preparations  for  fol- 
lowing Pompey  into  the  east. 

Meanwhile  Pompey  remained  at  Dyrrachium,  whore 
he  was  surrounded  by  the  greatest  part  of  the  senators, 
and  the  most  distinguished  men  of  Rome.  Among  these 
were  Cicero,  the  celebrated  orator,  and  Cato,  the  great 
patriot  and  philosopher.  The  latter  had  endeavoured  to 
prevent  a  civil  war  between  Caosar  and  Pompey,  and  had 
taken  the  side  of  Pompey,  when  he  saw  that  Caesar 
was  resolved  to  destroy  the  republic.  Among  the  Ro- 
mans at  this  time,  the  cause  of  Pompey  was  generally 


DEATH   OF    POMI'EY. 


47 


Pompey. 


considered  the  cause  of  freedom.  He  was  at  the  head 
of  a  numerous  army,  and  had  a  groat  fleet  at  his  disposal. 

Ccesar  landed,  with  an  army  greatly  inferior  to  that 
of  Pompey,  at  a  short  distance  from  Dyrrachium.  Pom- 
pey was  besieged  in  his  encampment ;  but,  making  an 
attack  on  the  besiegers,  he  completely  defeated  them. 
After  this  misfortune,  Cresar  retired,  followed  by  Pom- 
pey, whose  design  was  to  avoid  a  battle,  but  to  harass 
him  and  cut  off  his  supplies.  At  last,  however,  he  was 
forced  to  abandon  this  plan,  in  consequence  of  the  com- 
plaints of  his  troops ;  and  resolved,  against  his  own 
judgment,  to  hazard  a  battle.  He  accordingly  gave 
battle  to  Caesar  at  Pharsalia,  and  was  defeated,  with 
the  total  destruction  of  his  army,  in  the  year  43  before 
Christ. 

This  defeat  ruined  the  fortunes  of  Pompey.  He  fled 
to  .Egypt,  and  was  treacherously  murdered  by  order  of 


48  DSFEAT  OF   POMPEY's   PARTY. 

Ptolemy,  the  king  of  that  country,  as  soon  as  he  arrived. 
Ca?sar,  who  pursued  him  i.Mo  Kaypt,  was  met  on  his 
landing,  hy  the  murderers,  who  brought  him  the  head  of 
his  enemy.  But  C;rsar  turned  away  with  horror  from 
the  siirht,  and  indignantly  dismissed  the  ruffians,  who 
had  expected  to  be  rewarded  for  their  crime.  Soon 
afterwards  he  ordered  a  magnificent  tomb  to  be  erected 
lor  his  great  rival  on  the  spot  where  he  fell. 


VIII.  DEFEAT  OF  POMPEY'S  PARTY,  AND  DEATH  of 
CATO. —  A.-si  MPTIO.N  OF  THE  SUI-UEME  I>O\VLR  BY 
CJBS\R. — His  MURDER. — FLIGHT  OF  BRUTUS  AND  THE 

OTHER  CONSPIRATORS. TlIE  SECOND  TRIUMVIRATE, 

OF   ANTONY.   OtTAVlUS,   AND   LEPIDUS. BATTLE  OF 

PHILIPPI. — DEATH  OF  BRUTUS  AND  CASSIUS. — LEPI- 
Ul  S  DEPOSED  BY  OcTAVRS. ANTONY  AND  CLEO- 
PATRA. 

WHILE  (Vsar  remained  in  Egypt  a  dispute  took  place 
respecting  the  crown  of  that  kingdom,  between  Ptolemy, 
who  possessed  it,  and  his  sister  Cleopatra,  who  aspired 
to  it.  CVsar  favoured  the  cause  of  Cleopatra,  and,  being 
besieged  in  the  city  of-  Alexandria,  by  Ptolemy,  was  in 
great  danger.  He  was  at  last  relieved  by  a  large  body 
of  troops  who  arrived  to  his  assistance ;  and,  having 
defeated  the  army  of  Ptolemy,  placed  Cleopatra  on  the 
throne. 

Soon  afterwards  Crcsar  turned  his  arms  against  the 
remnant  of  Pompey's  party,  who  had  assembled  in 
Africa,  and  were  assisted  by  Juba,  king  of  Mauritania. 
Their  army,  commanded  by  Scipio  and  Juba,  advanced 
against  Ca-sar;  but  they  were  completely  defeated,  and 
the  generals  slain. 

There  now  only  remained  a  small  force  stationed  in 
the  city  of  Utica,  under  Cato.  Notwithstanding  the 
defeat  of  the  army,  he  determined  to  defend  this  town  : 


DEATH    OF    CATO. 


49 


Cicero. 


but,  being  unable  to  persuade  his  party  to  stand  a  siege, 
he  stabbed  himself  with  his  sword.  The  death  of  Cato 
took  place  in  the  year  45  before  Christ. 

Caesar  now  returned  to  Rome,  and  celebrated  his 
victories  by  a  splendid  triumph.  To  every  one  of  his 
soldiers  he  gave  a  sum  equal  to  about  *7<H)  of  our 
money ;  and  larger  sums  to  the  officers,  according  to 
their  rank.  He  also  gave  to  every  citizen  ten  bushels 
of  corn,  ten  pounds  of  oil,  and  a  sum  equal  to  about  810. 

His  last  military  expedition  was  against  the  two  sons 
of  Pompey,  who  had  raised  an  army  in  Spain.  He 
completely  defeated  them  at  Munda:  and  thus  became 
master  of  the  Roman  empire. 

The  power  of  Caesar  was  now  absolute,  but  he  used  it 
vitfa  great  moderation.  His  sway  was  mild  and  just ; 
5 


50  MURDER    OF    C.^SAU. 

and  he  formed  many  plans  for  increasing'  the  prosperity 
of  the  Roman  empire,  and  the  splendour  of  Rome. 

Though  C;L'.-ar  had  thus  destroyed  the  liberties  of 
Rome,  the  moderation  of  his  government  made  him  ge- 
nerally beloved  by  the  people.  A  conspiracy,  however, 
wa>  tormed  against  him  among  the  senators.  Its  prin- 
cipal movers  were  Brutus  and  <  'h  of  whom 
had  been  adherents  of  Pompey,  and  had  experier/ 
mercy  utter  the  battle  of  Pharsalia.  Brutus, 
who  was  a  descendant  of  him  who  freed  Rome  from  the 
Tarquins,  was  influenced  by  a  pure  love  of  freedom  ;  bi.it 
(.'ass. ins  appears  to  have  been  incited  chiefly  by  pi 
hatred  to  Cesar.  The  conspirators  determined  to  exe- 
cute their  purpose  in  the  senate-house :  and  on  the  day 
they  had  fixed,  as"  soon  as  CiPsar  took  his  jjjace,  one  of 
their  number,  approaching  him  in  a  suppliant  posture, 
took  hold  of  his  robe  so  as  to  prevent  him  from  rising, 
while  the  others  attacked  him  with  their  daLrL'»'r~.  1  !e 
defended  himself,  though  unarmed,  with  great  vigour, 
till  he  received  a  wound  from  the  dagger  of  Brutus : 
when,  exclaiming,  "  and  you  too  Brutus !"  he  covered 
his  face  with  his  robe,  and  sank  down  at  the  bnse  of 
Pompey's  statue,  pierced  with  twenty-three  wounds, 
He  fell  in  the  year  44  before  Christ,  in  the  fifty-sixth 
year  of  his  age,  and  fourth  of  his  reign. 

This  murder  of  Ca'sar  produced  the  utmost  confusion. 
The  conspirators  attempted  to  address  the  senate;  but 
the  greater  number  of  the  senators  fled  from  the  hall. 
They  then  retired  to  the  Capitol.  In  the  meantime, 
some  of  Caesar's  friends,  at  the  head  of  whom  wns  Mar- 
cus Antonius  (or  Antony),  brought  his  body  into  the 
forum,  and  exposed  it,  covered  with  wounds,  to  the  view 
of  the  people.  Antony  had  served  under.Ca-sar  in  his 
wars,  and  was  now  one  of  the  consuls.  He  addressed 
the  people,  enlarging  on  Caspar's  virtues,  and  his  affec- 
tion for  them,  as  a  proof  of  which  he  read  his  will,  by 
which  he  had  bequeathed  to  them  his  extensive  gardens, 
and  a  considerable  sum  of  money  to  each  citizen.  In 
this  manner  he  raised  the  indignation  of  the  people  to 


THE  SECOND   TRIUMVIRATE.  51 

such  a  pitch,  that  they  destroyed  the  houses  of  the  con- 
spirators, who  were  forced  to  fly  from  the  city. 

Antony,  whose  object  in  thus  ingratiating  himself 
with  the  people,  was  to  obtain  for  himself  the  po- 
of sovereign  power,  as  soon  as  he  found  his  authority 
established,  no  longer  even  pretended  to  think  of  re- 
venging the  death  of  Ca-sar.  Octavius,  the  grand- 
nephew  and  adopted" son  of  Ca-sar,  then  a  young  man  of 
eighteen  years  of  age,  hastened  to  Rome  to  claim  the 
inheritance,  and  avenge  the  murder  of  his  uncle.  But 
he  was  coldly  received  by  Antony ;  and  finding  himself 
disappointed  in  his  expectations  from  him,  endeavoured 
successfully  to  gain  the  affections  of  the  people.  A 
quarrel  broke  out  between  them,  which  ended  in  a  war. 

JJrutus  had  gone  into  Cisalpine  Gaul,*  where  he  had 
raised  a  small  body  of  troops.  Antony  marched  against 
him,  and  besieged  him  in  the  city  of  Mutina.  Octavius, 
in  order  to  diminish  the  power  of  Antony,  prevailed  on 
the  senate  to  command  him  to  abandon  the  siege,  and 
wait  their  orders.  Antony  treated  this  message  with 
contempt ;  and  the  senate  sent  an  army,  'under  the 
consuls,  to  reduce  him  to  subjection.  Octavius  accom- 
panied the  expedition  with  a  body  of  troops  commanded 
by  himself.  After  several  engagements,  a  general  battle 
took  place,  in  which  Antony  was  defeated.  One  of  the 
Roman  consuls  who  was  mortally  wounded,  on  his  death- 
bed informed  Octavius  that  it  was  the  design  of  the 
senate  to  get  rid  of  him  as  well  as  Antony,  and  that  it  was 
for  this  purpose  that  they  opposed  them  to  each  other. 
Octavius,  deeply  moved  by -this  information,  resolved  to 
form  an  alliance  with  Antony,  instead  of  contending  with 
him  longer. 

Antony,  after  his  defeat,  had  resorted  to  Lepidus,  a 
man  who  had  favoured  his  views,  and  then  commanded 
some  troops  in  Gaul  beyond  the  Alps.  Octavius  now 
proposed  to  join  his  forces  to  theirs ;  and  a  conference 
took  place,  at  which  it  was  agreed  that  they  should 

*  That  part  of  ancient  Gaul  which  lay  on  the  Italian  side  of  the 
Alps  and  is  now  the  A'orth  of  Italy. 


THE   SECOSD   TRIUMVIRATE. 


Mark  Antony. 


jointly  possess  the  supreme  authority  for  the  space  of 
five  years,  under  the  title  of  Triimniratc ;  that  the 
government  of  the  different  parts  of  the  empire  should 
be  divided  among  them  ;'  and  that  all  their  enemies,  as 
contained  in  lists  furnished  by  each  of  them,  should  be 
destroyed. 

This  treaty  being  concluded,  tho  Triumvirs  imme- 
diately renewed  the  horrible  crueltic.s  of  Marius  and 
Sylla.  Great  numbers  of  the  most  distinguished  sena- 
tors and  citizens  of  Rome  were  put  to  death,  and  their 
estates  divided  among  their  murderers.  Having  fully 
satisfied  their  covetousness  and  vengeance,  they  declared 
the  proscription  at  end.  Octavius  and  Antony  marched 
to  oppose  Brutus  and  Cassius,  who  were  now  at  the  head 
of  a  large  army  in  Greece ;  leaving  Lepidus  to  govern 
in  Rome. 

The  army  of  the  Triumvirs  met  that  of  Brutus  and 


BATTLE   OF   PHILIPPI.  53 

Cassius  near  the  city  of  Philippi,  in  Thrace.  A  bloody 
battle  took  place,  in  which  the  conspirators  were  de- 
feated, and  Cabins  Aum.  Brutus  collected  the  remains 
of  the  army  ;  and  another  battle  took  place  a  few  weeks 
afterwards,  in  which  he  was  airain  defeated.  Escaping 
from  the  field  with  a  few  followers,  Brutus  sat  down 
under  a  rock  that  concealed  him  from  the  pursuers. 
Here,  finding  that  his  fortunes  were  desperate,  and  that 
most  of  his  friends  were  slain,  lie  resolved  to  die  also, 
and  prevailing  on  one  of  his  attendants  to  present  to 
him  the  point  of  his  sword,  lie  threw  himself  upon  it, 
and  immediately  expired.  The  destruction  of  Brutus 
and  his  party  took  place  in  the  year  42  before  Christ. 

The  Triumvirs  now  reigned  without  control  over  the 
Roman  empire ;  but  the  real  power  was  possessed  by 
Octavius  and  Antony,  Lepidus  enjoying  only  the  appear- 
ance of  it.  Octavius  remained  in  Italy  ;  while  Antony 
went  to  regulate  the  affairs  of  the  empire  in  the  east. 

Octavius,  who  seems  to  have  been  long  determined 
to  possess  himself  of  the  sole  power,  soon  found  a  pre- 
text for  getting  rid  of  Lepidus.  That  person,  dissatis- 
fied with  the  small  share  of  authority  allowed  him,  de- 
manded an  equal  share  of  power  with  his  colleague. 
This  produced  a  quarrel  ;  and  Octavius,  knowing  his 
influence  even  in  the  army  of  Lepidus,  went  alone  to 
his  camp,  and  declared  his  intention  of  deposing  him. 
Lepidus,  deserted  by  his  soldiers,  was  obliged  to  sub- 
mit; and  Octavius,  sparing  his  life,  banished  him  to 
Circfpum,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  days  in  ob- 
scurity. 

Antony's  conduct,  in  the  meantime,  had  made  him 
contemptible  to  the  Romans.  Having  been  engaged  in 
some  transactions  respecting  Egypt,  he  became  so  cap- 
tivated by  the  beauty  of  the  queen,  Cleopatra,  that  he 
sacrificed  every  consideration  of  duty  and  interest  to  his 
passion  for  her.  He  treated  his  wife,  Fulvia,  with  such 
cruelty  as  to  shorten  her  days;  and,  having  had  some 
differences  with  Octavius,  their  apparent  reconciliation 
was  followed  by  his  marriage  with  Octavius's  sister. 
After  this,  he  roused  himself  for  a  time  frcm  his  slothful 
5* 


ANTONY    AND    CLEOPATRA. 


Cleopatra. 


and  luxurious  life,  and  led  a  very  large  army  against 
the  farthians.  But  he  \vas' worsted  by  that  warlike 
people ;  and  returned  with  the  loss  of  a  fourth  part  of 
his  army,  and  all  his  storels.  Disregarding  the  contempt 
and  resentment  which  this  conduct  excited  at  Rome, 
Antony  returned  to  Cleopatra,  and  gave  himself  up  to 
the  allurements  of  her  society.  He  bestowed  on  her 
many  of  the  kingdoms  of  the  east  which  belonged  to  the 
Roman  empire ;  and  resolved,  in  order  that  lie  might 
marry  her,  to  divorce  his  wife  Octavia. 

This  foolish  and  vicious  behaviour  afforded  Octavius 
ample  grounds  for  proceeding  to  extremities  against 
Antony.  War  was  declared  against  him  by  the  & 
and  Octavius  took  the  command  of  the  forces.  Antony 
raised  an  army  of  100,000  foot  and  12,000  cavalry ;  and 
he  had  a  fleet  of  500  ships.  The  army  and  fleet  of 
Octavius  were  considerably  smaller.  The  fate  of  the 


BATTLE   OF  ACTIVM.  55 

war  was  decided  by  the  first  great  engagement,  which 
took  place  at  sea,  near  Actium  in  Epirus.  It  was  fought 
in  a  gulf,  or  bay,  on  the  opposite  sides  of  which  the 
land  armies  of  Octavius  and  Antony  were  drawn  up  as 
spectators.  The  fight  had  continued  with  great  fury 
for  sonic  time,  without  advantage  on  either  side;  when 
sudden  "ra,  who  commanded  a  division  of  An- 

tony'.- ^oon  i!yin;r  at  the  head  of  sixty  .ships; 

and  A'.  :acefully  followed  her.     His  fleet,  how- 

ever, though  thus  deserted,  fought  with  great  ob.- ' 
till  they  were  at  last  obliged  to  yield.     The  land  forces 
submitted  to  Octavius,  without  striking  a  blow. 

Antony  returned  with  Cleopatra  to  Egypt,  md  re- 
solved to  defend  that 'country  against  his  rival.  Octa- 
vius having  marched  to  Alexandria,  Antony  rr.ct  him, 
and  fouirht  so  desperately  that  he  repulsed  him.  Elated 
by  this  success,  he  challenged  Octavius  to  deqide  the 
dispute  between  them  by  single  combat ;  but  Octavius, 
well  aware  of  the  inequality  of  their  situations,  coolly 
replied,  that  Antony  had  ways  enough  to  die,  ! 
falling  by  his  hand.  Antony  then  ordered  his  ships  to 
attack  the  fleet  of  Octavius ;  and  they  sailed  in  good 
order,  apparently  for  that  purpose  ;  but  he  had  the  mor- 
tification to  see  them  salute  the  vessels  of  Octavius,  and, 
the  wli'ilc  uniting,  sail  into  the  harbour.  This  desertion 
took  place  in  consequence  of  secret  orders  from  Cleo- 
patra, who  betrayed  Antony  that  she  might  make  her 
peace  with  his  conqueror.  Finding  his  situation  utterly 
desperate,  he  stabbed  himself  with  his  sword.  Cleopatra 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Octavius,  and  at  first  endeavoured, 
by  all  her  arts,  to  gain  his  affection  ;  but  finding  that 
she  was  to  be  sent  to  Romi1  to  grace  his  triumph,  she 
put  an  end  tn  her  life  by  the  bite  of  an  asp.  The  death 
of  Cleopatrn.  which  took  place  in  the  year  30  before 
Christ,  terminated  the  monarchy  of  Egypt,  which  had 
existed  from  the  earliest  ages  of  the  world. 


Augustus. 


IX.  AUGUSTUS. — TIBERIUS. — CALIGULA. — CLAUDIUS. 

OCTAVIUS,  now  the  sole  master  of  the  Roman  empire, 
exercised  his  authority  for  several  years  under  the  title 
of  consul,  to  which  office  he  was  re-elected  every  year, 
along  with  some  other  person  whom  he  chose  to  invest 
with  the  empty  title.  At  length  he  assumed  the  royal 
power,  taking  the  titles  of  Emperor  and  Ai'tfuslns; 
which  latter  title,  though  it  was  taken  by  his  suci 
became  the  name  by  which  lie  particularly  was  distin- 
guished. This  event  took  place  twenty-seven  years  be- 
fore the  birth  of  Christ. 

The  Roman  empire  now  comprehended  the  greatest 
part  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  ;  and  was  nearly  4000 
miles  in  length,  and  2000  in  breadth.  Augustus?,  who 
had  gained  his  power  by  means  of  the  army,  took  every 
method  to  preserve  its  favour;  he  kept  up  great  military 
establishments  in  every  part  of  the  Roman  empire;  and 
the  standing  army  thus  supported  amounted  to  above 
170,000  men.  He  also  maintained  a  powerful  navy,  to 

(55) 


AUGUSTUS.  57 

keep  the  seas  clear  of  pirates,  and  protect  the  immense 
trade  carried  on  between  Italy  and  the  distant  parts  of 
the  empire. 

The  extent  of  the  empire,  exposed  it  to  frequent  at- 
tacks from  the  nations  on  its  borders.  About  ten  years 
after  the  accession  of  Augustus,  the  province  of  Gaul 
was  invaded  by  those  rude  tribes  inhabiting'  the  north 
of  Europe,  who  went  under  the  general  name  of  Ger- 
man? :  and  the  Rhsctians,  a  people  of  the  country  now 
called  Switzerland,  soon  afterwards  invaded  Italy, 
where  they  committed  horrible  ravages.  These  in- 
vaders, however,  were  soon  repulsed  by  the  Roman 
armies.  Having  restored  peace  throughout  the  empire, 
Augustus  ordered  the  temple  of  Janus,  which  had  re- 
mained open  since  the  days  of  Xuma  Pompilius,  to  be 
closed.* 

During  this  interval  of  universal  peace,  the  Saviour 
of  the  world  was  born  in  Judaea. 

The  northern  nations  having  renewed  their  attacks,  a 
Roman  army,  under  Quintilins  Varus,  was  entirely  cut 
to  pieces  by  them.  Augustus  suffered  the  most  violent 
grief  on  account  of  this  disaster;  for  several  months  he 
allowed  his  hair  and  beard  to  grow,  tearing  his  clothes, 
and  exclaiming  like  a  madman,  "  Restore  the  legions, 
Varus !"  Soon  after  this  he  died,  in  the  seventy-sixth 
year  of  his  age,  and  fifty-sixth  of  his  reign;  not  without 
suspicion  of  having  been  poisoned  by  the  Empress  Livia, 
a  woman  of  a  wicked  character. 

Livia,  before  her  marriage  with  the  emperor,  had  two 
sons,  Tiberius  and  Drusus.  Tiberius,  after  divorcing 
his  wife,  by  the  command  of  the  emperor,  married  Julia, 
his  daughter,  a  princess  infamous  for  her  debaucheries. 
Drusus,  after  distinguishing  himself  in  Germany,  died, 
leaving  a  son  named  Germanicus,  whom  the  emperor 
obliged  Tiberius  to  adopt,  though  he  had  a  son  of  his 

*  Janus,  a  Roman  deity,  was  said  to  have  been  an  ancient  king 
of  Italy,  who,  after  his  death,  was  worshipped  as  a  god,  in  con- 
sequence of  his  having  taught  his  subjects  husbandry,  and  other 
peaceful  arts.  His  temple,  erected  by  Romulus,  was  kept  opei 
in  tine  of  war,  and  shut  during  peace. 


53  TIBERIUS. 

own.  Augustus  himself  adopted  Tiberius  as  his  son; 
and  before  his  death,  made  him  his  colleague  in  the 
sovereignty.  On  the  death  of  Augustus,  consequently, 
Tiberius  became  emperor. 


Caligula. 


At  the  beginning1  of  Tiberius's  reign,  an  extensive 
revolt  took. place  among  the  troops  in  Germany.  It  was 
quelled  by  the  efforts  of  Germanicus ;  who  afterwards 
turned  his  arms  against  the  Germans,  and  performed 
many  brilliant  exploits.  Germanicus  was  distinguished 
for  his  virtues  and  talent.  He  died  at  an  early  age,  cut 
off,  as  was  supposed,  by  poison,  given  him  by  Pino,  his 
colleague  in  the  government  of  Syria. 

Tiberius  Bestowed  his  confidence  on  Sejanus,  a* Roman 
knight,  whom  he  had  made  his  minister.  Sejanus  was 
a  monster  of  wickedness  and  cruelty.  Aspiring  to  the 
throne,  he  resolved  to  remove  every  obstacle  that  stood 
in  his  way.  His  first  victim  was  Drusus,  the  son  of  the 
emperor,  whoso  wife,  Julia,  he  corrupted,  and  then  per- 
suaded her  to  poison  her  husband.  The  emperor,  desti- 
tute of  feeling,  showed  no  grief  for  his  son's  death.  He 
even  made  a  jest  of  it ;  for,  when  deputies  from  Troy 
arrived,  somewhat  late,  to  condole  with  him,  he  condoled 
with  them  on  the  death  of  Hector. 

To  prevent  the  emperor  from  hindering  the  execution 
of  his  further  designs,  Sejanus  persuaded  him  to  retire 


TIBERIUS.  59 

from  the  cares  of  government,  and  spend  a  life  of  plea- 
sure at  a  distance  from  Rope.  Tiberius  accordingly, 
in  the  twelfth  year  of  his  reign,  retired  to  the  island  of 
Capre;:1.  a  beautiful  spot,  where  he  resided  during  the 
rest  of  his  life;  and  which  he  polluted  by  the  most 
abominable  debaucheries  and  cruelties.  .  whose 

influence  with  him  was  unbounded,  easily  persuaded 
him  to  put  to  death  everyone  lie  wi.-hed  to  remove; 
among  whom  were  Tiberius  and  Drusus,  the  sons  of  Ger- 
manicus.  As  his  power  increased,  he  assumed  greater 
state  and  magnificence,  and  was  more  dreaded  than  the 
emperor  himself. 

But  his  fall  was  sudden  and  dreadful.  It  appears 
that  a  plot,  which  he  had  formed  against  the  life  of  the 
emperor,  was  discovered  and  revealed  to  Tiberius.  The 
tyrant,  however,  found  it  necessary  to  dissemble;  and 
loaded  the  traitor  with  fresii  honours,  while  he  was  pre- 
paring to  destroy  him.  At  last  he  wrote  to  the  senate, 
ordering  Sejanus  to  be  imprisoned  ;  but  they,  venturing 
beyond  their  instructions,  decreed  his  immediate  <:eath. 
The  universal  hatred  now  burst  forth  :  as  he  was  led  to 
execution,  the  people  loaded  him  with  insults  and  curses. 
He  attempted  to  hide  his  face  with  his  hands :  but,  to 
deprive  him  even  of  this  poor  relief,  they  were  bound 
behind  him.  His  mangled  body  was  dragged  about  the 
streets  :  and  the  multitude,  in  their  fury,  murdered  his 
whole  family. 

After  this  event,  Tiberius  seemed  to  be  devoured  by 
an  unceasing  thirst  for  blood.  Not  a  day  .passed  without 
ey'.-.utions,  in  which  the  victims  suffered  the  most 
horrible  torments.  When  one  of  them  killed  himself  to 
avoid  the  torture,  "  Ah  !"  the  tyrant  exclaimed,  "how 
has  that  man  been  able  to  escape  me  V  When  another 
entreated  that  he  might  immediately  be  put  to  death, 
"  Xo !"  cried  Tiberius,  "  I  am  not  sufficiently  your 
friend  to  shorten  your  torment." 

In  the  meantime  the  remoter  provinces  were  overrun 
by  the  surrounding  nations,  and  the  whole  empire  was 
in  a  state  of  disorder  that  alarmed  him  for  his  safety, 
and  excited  in  him  such  a  hatred  of  all  mankind,  that 


lie  was  heard  to  wish  that  the  \vhole  human  race 
perish  along  with  him.     Exhausted  by  his  debaucheries, 
"ie  began  to  think  of  a  successor ;  and  cho=e  Caligula, 
lie  remaining  son  of  Germanicus.     He  was  at  las! 
,'ith  a  sickness  which  appeared  to  be  mortal ;  ai, 
ula,  supposing  him  to  be  on  his  death-bed,  proc<  •.• 
-sumc  the  government,  when  lie  was  alu.i 
that  the  emperor  seemed  to  be  recm 
!cured  his  own  safety,  by  ordering  the  emperor  to  be 
ispatdied.     Thus  Tiberius  died,  in  the  seventy-eighth 
:ar  of  his  age,  and  twenty-Second  of  his  reign. 


Ca!i''ula. 


Caligula  at  first  conducted  himself  with  great  mode- 
ration. He  refused  to  listen  to  an  account  of  a  conspi- 
racy which  was  alleged  to  have  been  formed  against 
him,  saying  that  having  done  nothing  to  deserve  any 


CALIGULA.  61 

man's  hatred,  he  was  not  afraid  of  any  man.  He  set 
about  reforming  the  abuses  of  the  state,  and  restored  to 
the  people  their  ancient  right  of  electing  • 
he  endeavoured,  too,  to  correct  tiie  prevailing  corruption 
of  manners,  not  only  by  punishing  vice,  but  by  bestowing 
rewards  on  virtuous  conduct. 

But  tin's  seemingly  excellent  behaviour  was  m> 
cloak,  under  which  he  concealed  the  wickedne.-s  of  his 
mind.     In  less  than  a  year  he  threw  it  olK  and  gave  a 
loose  to  his  covetousness,  lust,  and  cruelty.     His  barba- 
rities were  committed   in  mere  sport  and   wantonness. 
Having  been  sick,  and  hearing  that  a  person  had  di 
himself  to  death  in  case  he  should  recover,  he  compelled 
the  fulfilment  of  his  vow,  by  ordering  him  to  be  thrown 
over   the  ramparts.     The  emperor's  father-in-law  was 
put  to  death  on  some  slight  suspicion  :  and  Grec: 
eminent  senator,  shared   his  fati1,  tor  refusing  to  <_rive 
false  testimony  against  him.     Crowds  were  tin:.- 
sacrificed  to  his  suspicions,  and  his  mere  love  of  cruelty. 
His  luxury  and  prodigality  were  unexampled.     lie  ex- 
ercised his  ingenuity  in  inventing  the  most  expensive 
dishes :  and,  to  make  them  more  costly,  had  jeu  > 
solved   among   the   sauces.     He   sometimes   employed 
himself,  for  days  together,  in  scattering  money 
the  people.     He  had  large  ships  built  of  cedar,  inlaid 
•  i\d  and  precious  stones,  and  with  silken  sails;  in 
these  he  used  to  coast  along  the  shore  of  Campania, 
d  by  the  ministers  of  his  luxuries.     In  the  midst 
ofthe.se  entertainments  he  amused  himself  by  throwing 
many  of  his  attendants  into  the  sea.     On  one  oc 
he  ordered  several  vessels,  filled  with  spectators,  to  be 
attacked  and  sunk ;  many  were   drowned,  and   some, 
who  endeavoured  to  escape,  were  struck  down  by  the 
emperor's  command. 

By  his  unheard-of  pr  ;  'aligula,  having  squan 

dered  a  sum  equal  to  18,000,000i  sterling,  amassed  by 
Tiberius,  totally  exhausted  his  treasures.  To  supply 
the  means  of  his  profusion,  he  now  extorted  money  from 
his  subjects  in  every  way  he  could  devise.  Taxes  were 
laid  upon  everything,  even  to  the  wages  of  the  poorest 
6 


62  CALIGULA. 

tradesman.  He  kept  a  gamine-house,  of  which  he  re- 
ceived the  profits.  On  one  occasion,  having  had  a  run 
of  ill  luck,  he  happened  to  observe  two  rich  knights 
passing  by,  on  which  he  suddenly  rose  up,  and  ordered 
their  estates  to  be  confiscated.  Then,  joining  his  com- 
panions, he  told  them  he  had  never  made  a  better  throw 
in  his  life.  On  another  occasion,  being  in  want  of 
money  for  a  stake,  he  went  out,  and  ordered  several  no- 
blemen to  be  put  to  death  ;  and,  on  his  return,  told  the 
company  that  they  sat  playing  for  trifles,  while  he  had 
won  sixty  thousand  sesterces*  at  a  cast 

In  the  third  year  of  his  reign,  Caligula  undertook  an 
expedition  against  the  Britons  and  the  Germans,  in 
which  he  acted  in  a  manner  that  can  be  accounted  for 
only  on  the  supposition  of  his  having  been  insane,  lie 
sometimes  hurried  on  so  fast,  that  the  troops  were  obliged 
to  leave  their  standards  and  baggage  behind  :  at  other 
times,  lie  moved  with  the  slowness  of  a  religious  proces- 
sion. Instead  of  marching  into  Germany,  he  led  his 
troops  to  the  sea-shore  in  Eatavia  :  and  there,  drawing 
up  the  army  in  order  of  battle,  and  causing  the  warlike 
instruments  to  sound,  he  made  his  men  gather  shells  in 
their  helmets.  He  then  made  them  a  speech,  extolling 
their  exploits,  and  erected  a  lofty  tower  as  a  trophy  of 
his  victory. 

This  dreadful  career  of  folly  and  wickedness  was 
short.  A  conspiracy1  against  Caligula  was  formed, 
chiefly  by  Cherea,  an  officer  of  the  guards,  whom  the 
emperor  was  in  the  habit  of  insulting,  because  he  had  an 
effeminate  voice.  The  conspirators  seized  the  opportu- 
nity of  the  emperor  going  to  the  bath.  As  he  was  en- 
tering, Cherea  struck  him  to  the  ground,  crying,  "  Ty- 
rant, think  on  this !"  the  rest  of  the  conspirators  rushed 
in;  and,  while  the  emperor  continued  struggling,  and 
crying  that  he  was  not  yet  dead,  they  despatched  him 
with  their  swords.  He  was  in  the  twenty-ninth  year 
of  his  age,  and  had  reigned  nearly  three  years. 

As  the  conspirators  had  made  no  provision  for  ap- 

•  Nearly  500,0001.  sterling. 


CLAUDIUS. 


63 


pointing  a  successor,  Caligula's  death  produced  great 
confusion.  A  number  of  the  conspirators  were  cut  to 
pieces  by  the.&oldiers  ;  who,  having  discovered  Claudius, 
the  emperor's  uncle,  in  a  secret  place  where  he  had  hid 
himself,  suddenly  resolved  to  make  him  emperor.  They 
carried  him  on  their  shoulders  to  the  camp,  where  they 
proclaimed  him;  and  his  appointment  was  confirmed 
by  the  senate,  who  had  no  power  to  oppose  it.  Chorea, 
and  some  others  of  the  conspirators,  were  immediately 
seized  and  put  to  death. 


Claudiuf. 


Claudius  was  fifty  years  of  age  when  he  began  to 
reign.  He  had  been  subject  to  diseases  which  had 
weakened  both  his  body  and  mind.  His  conduct,  at 
first,  however,  showed  good  sense  and  good  intentions. 
He  was  diligent  in  dispensing  justice ;  and  sometimes 
displayed  considerable  acuteness  in  doing  so ;  as  when, 
on  one  occasion,  he  obliged  a  woman  to  acknowledge  a 
son  whom  she  had  disowned,  by  decreeing  that  she 
should  marry  him.  He  was  attentive  to  the  supply  of 
the  city  with  provisions ;  and  constructed  an  aqueduct 
of  wonderful  magnitude,  which  brought  water  from 
forty  miles  distance.  He  also  made  a  magnificent  har- 


fit  CLAUDIUS. 

hour  at  Ostia,  in  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber.  He  acted, 
too,  with  vigour,  in  defending  the  extremities  of  the 
empire ;  and  undertook,  personally,  an  expedition  into 
Britain. 

But  Claudius  was  unable  to  act  steadily  for  himself, 
ami  soon  gave  himself  up  to  the  influence  of  wicked 
favourites.  His  chief  adviser  was  his  wife  '• 

i  abandoned  to  every  vice.  He  allowed  her  and 
sociates  to  commit,  in  his  name,  the  most  atro- 
cious acts  of  cruelty  and' rapacity  ;  and  th 
suspicions  to  which  he  became  a  prey,  soon  made  him 
act  in  the  same  way  himself.  He  grew  more  and  more 
bloodthirsty  ;  and  the  use  of  torture  became  his  chief 
enjoyment.  Such,  at  the  same  time  was  his  ii 
bility,  that  he  would  frequently  invite  to  supper  persons 
whom  lie  had  put  to  death  but  the  day  before.  No  less 
than  thirty-live  senators,  and  three  hundred  knights, 
•  xecuted  during  }ijs  reiirn. 

.Mi'ssalina,  meanwhile,  relying  on  the  emperor's  weak- 
ness of  mind,  set  no  bounds  to  her  wickedness.  Having 
quarrelled,  however,  with  one  of  her  companions  in  vice, 
he  informed  the  emperor  of  circumstances  which  roused 
even  his  insensibility,  and  filled  him  with  fears  for  his 
own  safety.  He  ordered  Messalina  and  her  infamous 
companions  to  be  seized  and  put  to  death.  He  was 
feasting  when  informed  that  she  was  dead  ;  but  conti- 
nued at  table  with  the  utrtlbst  composure,  and  next  day 
while  at  dinner,  inquired  what  was  the  cause  of  her  ab- 
sence. 

Soon  afterwards,  Claudius  married  Agrippina,  the 
daughter  of  his  brother  Germanicus,  a  woman  not  less 
vicious  than  Messalina  had  been.  Her  chief  object  was 
to  secure  the  succession  to  her  own  son,  Nero,  by  her 
former  husband,  Domitius  Ahenobarbus,  to  the  exclusion 
of  Britannicus,  son  of  the  emperor  and  Messalina.  For 
this  purpose  she  married  Nero  to  the  emperor's  daugh- 
ter, Octavia,  and  caused  the  emperor  to  adopt  him  as 
his  son.  The  violent  and  domineering  temper  of  Aimp- 
pina  became  intolerable  to  Claudius;  and  he  having  on 
some  occasion  expressed  his  feelings  in  a  manner  that 


NERO.  65 

alarmed  her  for  her  own  safety,  she  determined  to  se- 
cure herself  by  his  death,  and  caused  poison  to  be  given 
him  in  a  dish  of  mushrooms.  He  died  in  the  year  54 
of  the  Christian  era. 


I 

X.  NERO. 

NERO,  by  the  influence  of  his  mother,  was  immediately 
proclaimed  emperor,  to  the  exclusion  of  Britannicus. 
lie  was  seventeen  years  of  age,  and  his  former  charac- 
ter was  good.  The  beginning  of  his  reign  gained  for 
him  the  love  of  his  subjects.  He  appeared  to  be  just, 
humane,  and  liberal.  When  a  warrant  for  the  <. 
tion  of  a  criminal  was  brought  to  him  to  be  signed,  he 
used  to  exclaim,  li  Would  to  heaven  that  I  had  never 
learned  to  write !"  The  senate  having  paid  him  some/ 
compliments  on  his  conduct,  he  replied  with  seeming 
modesty,  "  that  they  should  defer  their  thanks  till  he 
had  deserved  them.'' 

In  this  manner  Nero  conducted  himself  for  five  years. 
All  this  while  he  restrained  his  natural  disposition,  for 
6* 


66  NERO. 

the  purpose  of  establishing  his  power.  His  first  crime 
was  the  murder  of  Britannicus,  the  son  of  the  late  em- 
peror, and  the  true  heir  to  the  crown.  This  young  man, 
by  his  orders,  was  poisoned  at  a  banquet.  After  this,  the 
emperor  soon  threw  off  all  restraint,  and  showed  himself 
iin  his  real  colours.  He  gave  himself  up  to  the  most 
profligate  indulgences ;  and  divorced  his  wife  Octavia.  in 
order  to  marry  Poppea,  the  wife  of  one  of  his  favourites,' 
a  woman  of  a  very  vicious  character.  Poppea  used  all  her 
arts  to  excite  the  emperor's  hatred  of  his  mother,  and 
persuaded  him  to  put  her  to  death.  He  tirst  endea- 
voured to  have  her  poisoned,  but  this  failing,  he  had  her 
invited  on  board  a  ship,  so  contrived  as  to  fall  to  pieces 
in  the  water.  This  plot  also  taileii.  as  she  was  taken 
out  of  the  water  by  a  trading  vessel  tisut  happened  to  be 
passing.  Nero,  thus  disappointed  in  his  horrid  schemes, 
determined  to  put  her  to  death  openly.  He  caused  a 
report  to  be  spread  that  she  had  conspired  against  his 
life ;  and,  under  this  pretence,  sent  a  party  of  soldiers 
to  despatch  her.  Next  day  he  defended  his  conduct  in 
the  senate,  who  were  so  sunk  in  meanness  as  to  applaud 
him  for  it 

While  Nero  gave  a  loose  to  the  cruelty  of  his  disposi- 
tion, he  showed  great  fondness  for  all  sorts  of  amuse- 
ment Chariot-driving  was  one  of  his  favourite  pursuits. 
He  used  to  exhibit  his  skill  at  the  public  chariot  races 
in  the  circus,  greedily  listening  to  the  shouts  of  the  peo- 
ple. He  was  fond  of  music,  and  believed  himself  to  be 
a  fine  singer.  He  attempted  also  to  write  poetry,  and 
was  very  vain  of  his  productions.  He  made  a  journey 
through  different  parts  of  the  empire,  for  the  purpose  of 
displaying  his  talents.  Wherever  he  went,  he  per- 
formed at  the  public  theatres.  While  he  was  on  the 
stage,  nobody  was  permitted  to  leave  the  theatre.  Sol- 
diers were  stationed  in  different  places  to  make  the 
audience  applaud.  An  old  senator  named  Vespasian 
(who  was  afterwards  emperor),  happening  to  fall  asleep 
on  one  of  these  occasions,  narrowly  escaped  with  his 
life. 
In  the  eleventh  year  of  his  reign,  a  great  part  of 


NERO.  67 

Rome  was  consumed  by  fire.  It  raged  for  six  days : 
and  a  great  number  of  the  inhabitants  perished,  in  their 
attempts  to  save  their  property  from  the  flames,  which 
spread  with  surprising  rapidity.  Many  men  were  seen 
preventing,  by  threats,  those  who  attempted  to  stop  the 
tire;  and  even  throwing  firebrands  into  the  houses,  loudly 
declaring  that  they  had  orders  to  do  so.  Scarcely  had 
this  lire  ceased,  than  a  new  one  broke  out  in  certain 
buildings  belonging  to  Tigellinus,  a  favourite  of  the 
emperor.  While  the  flames  raged,  Xero  appeared  on 
the  stage  in  his  palace,  singing  the  destruction  of  Troy. 

Nero  himself  was  generally  suspected  to  have  caused 
this  fire,  from  the  desire,  it  was  said,  of  having  the  glory 
of  building  a  new  city,  and  calling  it  by  his  name.  He 
immediately  set  about  the  rebuilding  it  according  to  a 
regular  plan  ;  and  the  city,  as  now  restored,  became 
more  beautiful  than  before.  He  endeavoured  to  remove 
from  himself  the  odium  of  this  deed,  by  accusing  the 
Christians,  who  were  by  this  time  numerous  in  Rome, 
of  having  committed  it ;  and,  in  consequence  of  this  false 
charge,  they  were  subjected  to  a  barbarous  persecution. 
Great  opposition  was,  indeed,  often  made  by  the  heathen 
emperors  of  Rome  to  the  infant  church  of  Christ ;  but 
our  holy  religion,  being  derived  from  God,  was  sustained 
by  his  Almighty  power,  and  thus  was  made  to  triumph 
in  the  end  over  that  violence,  cruelty,  and  persecution, 
which  must  otherwise  have  driven  it  from  the  world. 

The  emperor's  tyranny  produced  a  conspiracy  against 
him,  formed  by  Piso,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  men 
in  Rome.  It  was  discovered  before  it  was  ripe  for  exe- 
cution ;  and  a  great  number  of  eminent  persons,  cither 
concerned  in  it,  or  suspected  of  being  so,  were  put  to 
death.  Among  them,  the  most  remarkable  were  Seneca, 
the  celebrated  philosopher,  who  had  been  Nero's  tutor, 
and  Lucan  the  poet,  who  was  Seneca's  nephew.  Bodies 
of  soldiers  were  sent  through  the  surrounding  country 
in  search  of  those  who  were  accused.  Crowds  of  pri- 
soners, loaded  with  chains,  \vere  daily  brought  to  the 
palace-gate  to  receive  their  sentence  from  Nero's  own 
mouth.  He  presided  in  person  at  the  torture  and  at 


executions;  and  appeared  to  delight  in  the  agony  and 
death   of  his  victims.      The  empress  Poppea   did   not 
his  fury.     She  died  of  a  miscarriage,  caused  by 
his  having  kicked  her  in  a  fit  of  savage  fury. 

While  the  Romans  were  thus  enslaved  ami  wretched 
at  home,  they  carried  on  some  successful  wars  abroad. 
The  inhabitants  of  Britain  having  endeavoured,  under 
their  queen  Boadicea,  to  free  themselves,  were  so  com- 
pletely subdued,  that  they  never  again  made  an  attempt 
to  revolt,  so  long  as  the  Romans  remained  amoiii' 
Many  victories  were  gained  over  the  Parthians:  and 
Tiridates,  king  of  Armenia,  who  had  been 
the  Parthians,  was  compelled  to  go  to  Rome,  and  make 
a  complete  submission  to  the  emperor. 

Revolts  now  broke  out  in  different  quarters.  The  first 
appeared  in  Gaul,  under  Julius  Vindex,  who  commanded 
the  troops  there.  He  publicly  protested  against  the 
tyrannical  government  of  Nero;  proclaimed  Seririus 
Galba  emperor,  and  invited  him  to  join  in  dethroning 
the  tyrant.  Galba,  at  that  time  governor  of  Spain,  was 
a  man  who  had  greatly  distinguished  himself  both  in 
peace  and  war.  He  was  now  an  old  man  ;  and  had  long 
desired  to  live  in  obscurity,  in  order  to  avoid  the 
cions  and  jealousy  of  the  emperor.  After  some  hesita- 
tion, he  joined  Vindex. 

When  Nero  heard  of  this  event,  he  was  at  supper. 
Struck  with  terror,  he  overturned  the  table  with  his  toot, 
and  fainted.  On  recovering  his  senses,  he  struck  his 
head  and  tore  his  clothes,  crying  that  he  was  utterly 
undone.  He  next  began  to  meditate  the  wildest  schemes 
of  vengeance  and  destruction.  He  thought  of  murder- 
ing all  the  Gauls  in  Rome,  of  putting  to  death  all  the 
governors  of  the  provinces,  of  poisoning  the  senate, 
burning  the  city,  and  letting  loose  the  wild  beasts  upon 
the  people.  These  furious  thoughts  were  mixed  with 
the  most  trifling  cares.  He  was  anxious  to  provide 
wagons  for  the  carriage  of  his  musical  instruments  ;  and 
1  up  a  number  of  the  profligate  women  who  sur- 
rounded him,  in  military  attire,  in  order  to  meet  the 
enemy.  His  despair  became  actual  madness. 


DEATH   OF   NERO.  69 

In  the  meantime,  the  troops  in  Germany,  Africa,  and 
Lusitania,  as  well  as  the  armies  in  Spain  and  Gaul,  de- 
clared against  Nero :  and  the  whole  empire  was  soon  in 
a  state  ot' revolt.  The  praetorian  guards  left  the  palace, 
and  proclaimed  Galba  emperor.  Nero  sent  for  his  friends; 
but  every  friend  had  forsaken  him.  He  went  himself  from 
house  to  house  in  search  of  them  ;  but  all  had  disappeared. 
His  servants  followed  the  example,  and.  after  plunder- 
ing his  apartments,  made  their  escape.  In  his  despera- 
tkn,  he  tlesired  that  one  of  his  favourite  gladiators 
might  corne  and  kill  him;  but' no  one  complying  with 
his  request,  he  cried,  "Alas  !  have  I  neither  friend  nor 
enemy  !"  He  then  asked  for  a  hiding-place ;  and 
Phaon,  one  of  his  attendants,  offered  him  his  house  at  a 
short  distance  from  the  city.  Nero,  halt-dressed,  and 
with  his  face  covered,  set  out  for  his  place  of  conceal- 
ment, attended  by  four  servants  who  had  remained  with 
him.  He  heard  the  confused  shouts  of  the  people,  and 
cries  of  the  soldiers.  A  passenger,  meeting  him  on  the 
way.  cried,  "  There  go  men  in  pursuit  of  Nero."  An- 
other asked  him  if  there  was  any  news  of  Nero  in  the 
city.  His  horse  takin<r  fright  at  a  dead  body  that  lay 
on  the  roaxi,  he  dropped  his  handkerchief  from  his  face  ; 
and  a  soldier  addressed  him  by  name.  He  now  left  his 
horse,  and  made  his  way  on  foot  to  Phaon's  house. 
When  he  arrived  at  the -back  of  the  house,  and  was 
waiting  till  a  hole  was  made  in  the  wall  to  admit  him, 
he  took  up  some  muddy  water  in  the  hollow  of  his  ba*id, 
to  quench  his  thirst,  saying,  "To  this  liquor  is  Nero  re- 
duced !''  Having  got  into  the  house  he  threw  himself 
upon  a  pallet.  A  slave  of  Phaon  arrived 'with  the  tidings 
that  Galba  had  been  declared  emperor,  and  he  himself 
condemned  to  die,  according  to  the  rigour  of  the  ancient 
laws.  He  inquired  what  that  meant;  and  was  told  that 
the  criminal  was  to  be  stripped  naked,  to  have  his  head 
fixed  in  a  pillory,  and  in  that  posture  to  be  scourged  to 
death.  Struck  with  horror,  he  seized  two  daggers  he 
had  brought  with  him.  examined  their  points,  and  laid 
them  down  again,  saying,  the  time  was  not  yet  come. 
The  sound  of  horses'  feet  was  now  heard ;  and  Nero, 


70  GALBA. 

finding  all  was  lost,  stabbed  himself.  Before  he  was 
dead,  the  soldiers  burst  in  the  room  :  and  one  of  them, 
pretending  he  came  to  his  relief,  endeavoured  to  stop 
the  blood  with  his  cloak.  But  Nero,  fixing  his  eyes 
sternly  on  him,  exclaimed,  "  It  is  too  late :  is  this  your 
fidelity?"  and  expired.  His  death  took  place  in  the 
thirty-second  year  of  his  age,  and/ourteenth  of  his  reign, 


XI.  GALBA. — OTHO. — VITELLIUS. 

GALBA  was  seventy-two  years  of  age  when  he  began 
to  reign ;  and  it  is  a  striking  circumstance,  that  the 
possession  of  supreme  power,  even  at  that  age,  called 
into  action  vices  'of  his  character  which  had  not  been 
remarkable  during  his  former  long  life.  Before  he  en- 
tered Rome,  he  committed  an  act  of  rigour  which  de- 
serves the  name  of  cruelty.  A  large  body  of  seamen, 
who  had  obtained  certain  privileges  from  Nero,  met  the 
new  emperor  to  request  a  confirmation  of  tJiose  privi- 
leges. Galba  making  no  answer,  they  insisted  with 
some  clamour  upon  their  demand ;  whereupon  the  em- 
peror ordered  his  cavalry  to  ride  among  them  and  put 
them  to  the  sword.  SeVen  thousand  of  them  were  thus 
killed ;  and  the  emperor,  not  content  with  this  punish- 
ment, ordered  the  remainder  to  be  decimated,  that  is, 
every  tenth  man  to  be  put  to  death. 

His  avarice,  too,  soon  became  remarkable.  Soon  after 
his  coming  to  Rome,  he  ordered  the  ministers  of  Nero's 
cruelties  to  be  seized  and  publicly  executed  ;  but  it  was 
observed  that  Tigellinus,  the  most  infamous  of  them 
all,  was  not  among  the  number ;  and  it  was  afterwards 
discovered  that  he  had,  by  means  of  his  ill-gotten 
wealth,  purchased  his  pardon  from  Galba.  Other  great 
criminals  employed  similar  means  to  screen  themselves 
from  justice.  This  passion  grew  to  such  a  height,  that, 


GAT.BA. OTHO.  71 

in  a  short  time,  all  puni.  hments  could  be  redeemed,  and 
all  offices  bought  with  money. 

Galba,  from  these  vices,  became  very  unpopular ;  and 
concluding  that  he  might  make  himself  more  respected 
if  he  had  an  heir,  he  resolved  to  adopt  some  person  in 
that  character  whose  virtues  might  command  public  es- 
teem. Otho,  a  patrician  of  ancient  family,  who  had  been 
one  of  the  first  to  espouse  Galba's  cause,  endeavoured  to 
persuade  the  emperor  to  select  him  tor  this  distinction  ; 
but  Cialba  rejected  his  suit,  and  adopted  Pi.-o  Lucinianus, 
a  man  of  character  in  all  respects  superior  to  that  of 
Otho. 

Otho,  thus  disappointed,  resolved  on  obtaining  the 
empire  by  force.  His  extravagance  had  rendered  his 
circumstances  so  desperate,  that  he  was  heard  to  say, 
that  it  was  equal  to  him  whether  lu;  was  destroyed  by 
his  enemies  in  the  field,  or  his  creditors  in  the  city. 
Having  contrived  to  raise  a  sum  of  money,  he  succeeded, 
partly  by  bribes  and  partly  by  promises,  to  corrupt  the 
soldiers,  who  were  already  sufficiently  ill-disposed 
towards  the  emperor.  Otho  was  proclaimed  by  the 
troops,  who  immediately  followed  up  this  act  by  the 
murder  of  Galba,  after  he  had  reigned  only  seven  months. 

Otho  began  his  reign  by  actions  of  mildness  as  well  as 
justice.  He  not  only  pardoned  some  faithful  followers 
of  Galba,  but  bestowed  great  favours  on  them,  saying, 
that  fidelity  deserved  every  reward.  At  the  same  time 
Tigellinus,  the  agent  of  Nero's  cruelties,  who  had  bought 
his  pardon  from  Galba,  was  put  to  death. 

The  emperor  was  hardly  seated  on  the  throne,  when  a 
revolt  broke  out  among  the  troops  in  Germany.  Their 
general,  Vitellins,  who  had  long  desired  to  obtain  the 
empire,  now  persuaded  them  to  proclaim  him  emperor, 
and  to  march  to  Rome.  Otho  left  the  city  at  the  head  of 
a  great  army  to  oppose  him.  They  met  near  Placentia ; 
and  three  bloody  battles  were  fought  in  the  space  of  three 
days.  In  these  encounters  Otho  had  the  advantage ; 
but  he  was  at  length  totally  defeated  in  a  general  en- 
gagement near  a  village  called  Bedriacum.  Finding 


72  V1TELI.HS. 

himself  utterly  ruined,  he  fell  on  his  own  sword,  after  a 
reign  of  only  three  months. 

Vitellius,  having  thus  gained  the  empire  by  means  of 
his  .-oldiers,  was  proclaimed  as  a  matter  of  course,  by  the 
senate.  On  arriving  at  Rome  he  entered  the  city  at  the 
head  of  his  army,  not  as  a  capital  of  his  own  dominions, 
but  as  a  town  that  he  had  conquered.  lie  u, 
through-  the  streets,  mounted  on  horseback  and  in 
armour  ;  the  senate  and  people  walking  before  him  like 
captives  in  a  triumph. 

This  emperor  was  as  wicked  as  any  of  those  who  had 
gone  before  him.  His  favourite  vice  was  gluttony.  His 
entertainments  were  prodigiously  expensive,  though 
generally  at  the  cost  of  his  subjects,  to  whose  tables  tie 
used  to  invite  himself.  The  nobility  and  courtiers 
sought  to  raise  themselves,  not  by  virtue  or*capacity,  but 
by  the  greatness  of  their  entertainments. 

His  cruelty  was  still  more  detestable  than  his  glut- 
tony. Going  to  visit  one  of  the  companions  of  his  plea- 
sures, who  was  in  a  violent  fever,  he  mixed  poison  with 
his  water,  and  gave  it  to  him  with  his  own  hands.  He 
never  forgave  any  one  who  came  to  ask  him  for  payment 
of  money  he  had  borrowed.  Having  condemned  one  of 
to  death,  he  ordered  his  two  sons  to  be  executed 
along  with  him,  for  having  presumed  to  beg  for  their 
father's  life.  A  Roman  knight  on  his  way  to  execution 
having  cried  out  that  he  had  made  the  emperor  his  heir, 
Vitellius  demanded  to  see  the  will ;  and  finding  himself 
named  heir  jointly  with  another  person,  he  ordered  that 
person  to  be  executed  also,  that  he  might  enjoy  the 
whole  of  the  legacy. 

Vitellius  having  thus  made  himself  intolerable  to  his 
subjects,  revolts,  as  usual,  broke  out  in  the  first  place 
among  the  soldiers.  Vespasian,  who  had  for  a  long  time 
commanded  the  armies  in  the  east,  was  proclaimed  em- 
peror at  Alexandria.  He  at  first  professed  unwilling- 
ness to  accept  the  title,  till  the  soldiers  compelled  him 
to  do  so  by  threats  of  immediate  death.  He  sent  an 
army  into  Italy  under  one  of  his  generals  ;  himself  re- 
maining in  the  east  to  raise  forces. 


VITELLIVS.  73 

On  hearing  of  this  danger,  Vitellius  roused  himself 
from  his  sloth,  and  made  an  effort  to  defend  himself. 
He  despatched  an  army  to  meet  that  of  Vespasian  ;  but 
his  troops  were  defeated  near  Cremona,  with  the  loss  of 
30,000  men.  Sabinus,  one  of  his  officers,  raised  an  in- 
surrection in  Rome,  and  seized  the  Capitol ;  but  the 
soldiers  of  Vitellius  attacked  him  there,  set  fire  to  that 
beautiful  building,  and  took  Sabinus,  who  was  imme- 
diately executed  by  the  emperor's  command ;  and  all  his 
followers  who  escaped  the  fire  were  put  to  the  sword. 

In  the  mean  time,  Antonius,  Vespasian's  general,  ar- 
rived at  the  gates  of  Rome.  He  attacked  the  city  with 
great  fury  ;  and  it  was  obstinately  defended  by  the  troops 
of  Vitellius.  The  coi.jbat  lasted  a  whole  day:  till  at 
last  the  defenders  were  driven  into  the  city,  followed  by 
the  besiegers,  who  made  a  dreadful  slaughter  of  them 
in  the  streets.  All  the  while  the  populace  stood  by  as 
spectators,  clapping  their  hands,  as  if  they  had  been  in 
a  theatre,  and  killing  and  plundering  the  soldiers  of 
either  party,  who  turned  their  back,  or  straggled  from 
the  bodies  to  which  they  belonged.  This  bloody  scene 
took  place  during  the  time  of  one  of  those  festivals 
called  Saturnalia,  which  the  people  were  not  prevented, 
by  the  horrors  that  surrounded  them,  from  celebrating ; 
so  that  the  city  exhibited  a  shocking  mixture  of  mirth, 
riot,  strife,  and  slaughter. 

Vitellius,  deserted  by  every  one,  endeavoured  to  hide 
himself  in  his  palace  ;  but  he  was  soon  dragged  from  his 
retreat  by  a  party  of  the  conquering  soldiers.  He  begged 
earnestly  for  life;  or  at  least  to  be  kept  in  prison  till 
Vespasian's  arrival,  pretending  he  had  secrets  to  reveal. 
But  his  entreaties  were  vain ;  the  soldiers,  tying  his 
hands  behind  him,  and  putting  a  rope  about  his  neck, 
led  him  half  naked  into  the  forum.  The  people  threw 
filth  upon  him  as  he  passed,  and  loaded  him  with  re- 
vilings  and  curses.  Being  brought  into  the  forum,  he 
was  beaten  to  death ;  and  his  body,  after  being  dragged 
through  the  streets  by  a  hook,  was  thrown  into  the 
Tiber.  Thus  perished  Vitellius,  in  the  fifty-seventh, 
year  of  his  age,  after  a  reign  of  eight  months. 
7 


Vespasian. 


XII.  VESPASIAN. — TITUS. — DOMITIAN. 

AFTER  the  death  of  Vitellius,  Vespasian  was  pro- 
claimed emperor,  and  messengers  sent  into  Egypt, 
where  he  still  remained,  desiring  his  return  to  Rome. 
Before  he  set  out  for  Rome,  he  gave  his  son,  Titus,  the 
command  of  the  army  that  was  to  lay  siege  to  Jerusa- 
lem. On  his  arrival  he  began  to  reign  in  a  manner  that 
justified  the  hopes  that  were  formed  from  his  virtuous 
character.  He  began  by  restraining  the  lawless  beha- 
viour of  the  soldiers,  and  reducing  them  to  their  ancient 
state  of  discipline.  He  improved  the  proceedings  of  the 
courts  of  justice,  and  took  measures  for  shortening  the 
extravagant  length  of  law-suits.  He  rebuilt  the  Capi- 
tol ;  and  erected  the  famous  amphitheatre,  the  ruins  of 
which  are  to  this  day  a  striking  monument  of  the  glory 
of  ancient  Rome.  He  extended  his  care  to  the  whole 
empire ;  and  employed  a  long  reign  in  acts  of  justice, 
moderation,  and  wisdom. 

In  one  instance  only  did  Vespasian  act  in  a  manner 
inconsistent  with  his  usual  love  of  mercy.  Julius  Sa- 
binus  was  commander  of  a  small  army  in  Gaul;  and,  on 
the  death  of  Vitellius,  had  declared  himself  emperor. 
Being  defeated,  he  was  forced  to  conceal  himself  in  a 

(74) 


TITUS.  75 

cave,  where  he  remained  for  nine  years,  attended  by  his 
faithful  wife,  Empona,  who  provided  provisions  for  their 
subsistence.  Sabinus  at  length  was  discovered,  carried 
prisoner  to  Rome,  and  executed,  notwithstanding  the 
supplications  of  Empona,  who,  with  her  two  children, 
threw  herself  at  the  emperor's  feet,  and  implored  his  for- 
giveness. Vespasian's  fear  of  a  dangerous  rival  silenced 
the  voice  of  humanity. 

The  only  fault  in  his  disposition  was  a  tendency  to 
avarice.  He  imposed  severe  taxes ;  and  is  accused  of 
having  appointed  men  of  known  rapacity  to  the  govern- 
ment of  provinces,  in  order  that  he  might  share  in  their 
exactions.  The  exhausted  state  of  the  public  treasury, 
however,  when  he  began  to  reign,  furnished  an  excuse 
for  the  heaviness  of  his  taxation. 

Vespasian  brought  all  parts  of  the  Roman  empire  to  a 
state  of  tranquillity.  The  final  subjection  of  the  Jews, 
and  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  were  effected  by  his 
son  Titus,  in  the  year  70 ;  whereby  a  signal  fulfilment 
was  given  to  the  remarkable  prediction  of  our  blessed 
Saviour,  respecting  the  fate  of  that  guilty  city,  and  an 
illustrious  proof  of  the  sovereign  rule  which  the  Divine 
Being  exercises  over  the  affairs  of  nations.  The  gene- 
rals who  commanded  in  Britain,  reduced  the  greatest 
part  of  that  island  to  subjection.  After  a  reign  of  ten 
years,  Vespasian  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Titus. 

Titus  even  surpassed  his  father  in  the  virtues  which 
became  a  monarch  and  a  man.  In  his  youth  he  had  been 
given  to  pleasure ;  but  he  now  forsook  every  inclination 
and  pursuit  inconsistent  with  the  duties  he  was  called 
on  to  perform.  He  loved,  and  wished  to  marry,  Bere- 
nice, sister  of  Agrippa,  king  of  Judaea  :  but  finding  this 
connexion  disagreeable  to  the  Romans,  he  overcame  his 
passion,  and,  what  was  a  still  greater  effort,  resisted  her 
love  for  him,  and  sent  her  away.  He  dismissed  all  the 
companions  of  his  looser  recreations,  and  surrounded 
himself  with  wise  and  virtuous  counsellors.  His  whole 
thoughts  were  directed  to  the  good  of  his  subjects ;  and 
it  is  related,  that"  one  night  recollecting  that  he  had  not 


76  DOMITIAN. 

during  the  day  done  anything  useful  to  mankind,  he  ex- 
claimed, "  I  have  lost  a  day  !" 

In  this  reign  a  dreadful  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius 
did  great  damage  to  the  neighbouring  country  ;  and 
Rome  was  visited,  first  by  a  fire,  which  continued  for 
three  days  and  night:?,  and  then  by  a  plague,  during 
which  10,000  persons  were  buried  in  a  day.  These  dis- 
asters called  forth  the  utmost  exertions  of  the  emperor's 
humanity.  It  \vas  during  the  above  eruption  that  Pliny, 
the  celebrated  writer  on  Natural  History,  lost  his  lite. 

Titus  died  suddenly,  not  without  suspicion  of  trea- 
chery from  his  brother,  Domitian,  in  the  forty-first  year 
of  his  age,  having  reigned  between  two  and  three  years. 

Domitian,  who  succeeded  his  brother,  was  in  all  re- 
spects his  opposite.  Like  Nero,  however,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  his  reign,  he  affected  virtues  which  lie  did  not 
possess.  He  appeared  to  abhor  cruelty,  avarice,  and 
injustice  ;  but  in  a  short  time  the  wickedness  of  his  cha- 
racter became  apparent.  He  gave  himself  up  to  gaming, 
and  the  exhibition  of  expensive  shows  ;  and  his  amuse- 
ments in  solitude  were  of  the  most  childish  and  con- 
temptible kind.  His  favourite  pastime  was  catching 
flies  and  sticking  them  through  with  a  bodkin.  One  of 
his  servants,  being  asked  if  the  emperor  was  alone,  an- 
swered that  he  had  not  so  much  as  a  fly  in  his  company. 
His  vices  seemed  to  increase  every  day  ;  and  as  he  felt 
that  he  was  becoming  more  and  more  hateful  to  the  peo- 
ple, his  hatred  of  them  increased  in  the  same  degree. 
Agricola,  the  famous  general,  who  Imd  performed  the 
most  important  services  in  Britain  and  other  parts  of  the 
empire,  became  the  object  of  his  jealousy  and  ingrati- 
tude. Agricola  was  deprived  of  his  command  in  Britain, 
and  ordered  to  return  to  Rome.  Soon  afterwards  he 
died  in  retirement ;  and  it  was  believed  that  his  death 
was  hastened  by  the  emperor. 

The  general  hatred  of  Domitian  encouraged  Lucius 
Antonius,  who  governed  in  Germany,  and  was  at  the 
head  of  a  large  army,  to  revolt,  and  assume  the  imperial 
dignity ;  but  he  was  totally  defeated  by  the  emperor's 
\roops.  Domitian's  cruelties  were  heightened  by  this 


DOMITIAN.  77 

conspiracy:  in  order  to  discover  who  were  concerned 
in  it,  he  put  those  he  suspected  to  the  most  unheard-of 
tortures.  The  terrors  and  sufferings  of  his  subjects 
now  became  his  mo^t  common  amusement?.  On  one 
occasion,  having  invited  the  senators  to  a  bant]:. 
conducted  them  into  a  hall  dimly  lighted,  and  hung 
round  with  black.  The  room  contained  various  instru- 
ments of  torture  and  death;  and  roun.l  it  were  placed 
coffins,  on  which  each  of  the  terrified  senators  beheld 
his  own  name.  NVJiile  they  gazed  upon  tLese  dreadful 
objects,  a  body  of  men,  with  their  bodies  blackened,  and 
each  holding  a  sword  in  one  hand,  and  a  torch  in  the 
other,  burst  into  the  hall,  and  danced  around  them  with 
fierce  gestures.  At  last,  when  the  guests  were  expect- 
ing instant  death,  the  doors  were  thrown  open,  and  a 
servant  announced  that  the  emperor  gave  the  company 
leave  to  withdraw. 

The  Jews  were  exposed,  in  an  especial  manner,  to  the 
cruelty  of  this  monster,  partly  on  account  of  the  wealth 
of  many  of  them,  which  excited  his  avarice,  and  partly 
owing  to  the  prophecy,  long  current  in  the  east,  that  a 
person  of  the  line  of  David  should  rule  the  world ;  to 
prevent  the  accomplishment  of  which,  he  commanded  all 
the  Jews  of  the  line  of  David  to  be  sought  out  and  put 
to  death.  He  persecuted  the  Christians,  too,  with  great 
barbarity ;  putting  great  numbers  of  them  to  death  by 
the  most  dreadful  tortures. 

Domitian  at  length  fell  a  victim  to  the  fears  of  those 
who  surrounded  him.  His  wife  Domitia,  who  had  of- 
fended him,  having  obtained,  by  accident,  a  sight  of  his 
tablets,  on  which  he  was  accustomed  to  mark  the  names 
of  those  whom  he  intended  to  destroy,  was  struck  at 
finding  her  own  name  in  the  fatal  list.  She  imme- 
diately showed  it  to  several  officers  of  the  household, 
whose  names  were  also  in  it ;  and  they  agreed  to  save  ^ 
themselves  uy  the  death  of  the  tyrant.  On  the  night 
fixed  for  the  attempt,  his  chamberlain  informed  him 
that  Stephanus,  the  steward  of  his  household,  desired  to 
speak  with  him  on  urgent  business.  Stephanus,  being- 
admitted,  began  to  give  information  of  a  pretended  con- 
7* 


78  NERVA. 

spiracy,  and  sho\ved  a  paper  contair.  Jng  the  particulars. 
While  Domitian  was  eagerly  reading  it,  Stephanus 
stabbed  him  in  the  groin  with  his  dagger.  The  wound 
not  being  deadly,  a  desperate  struggle  ensued,  during 
A'hich  a  number  of  the  other  conspirators  rushing  in, 
despatched  the  emperor  witli  many  wounds.  Some  of 
the  guards,  being  alarmed,  came  to  his  assistance,  but 
too  late  to  save  him.  Stephanus,  however,  was  slain. 

On  hearing  ot"  this  event,  the  senate  hastily  assem- 
bled ;  and,  resolving  to  provide  a  successor  before  the 
army  could  lake  the  appointment  on  themselves,  they 
immediately  chose  Cocceius  Xerva. 


XIII.  XERVA. — TRAJAN. — ADRIAN. — ANTONINUS 
Pus. — MAKCTS  AURI:UVS. — COMMOUUS. 

X'F.RVA,  by  birth  a  Spaniard,  was  at  this  time  one  of 
the  most  eminent  men  in  Rome.  He  was  sixty-five 
years  of  age,  and  more  remarkable  for  the  virtuous 
tenour  of  his  life  than  for  his  talents.  His  conduct 
during  his  reign  was  consistent  with  his  former  charac- 
ter. He  was  liberal,  but  too  indulgent,  and  often  im- 
posed upon  by  designing  courtiers;  and  his  generosity 
went  the  length  of  profusion.  His  regard  for  money 
was  so  small,  that  when  one  of  his  subjects  had  found  a 
great  treasure,  and  wrote  to  the  emperor  inquiring  how 
he  should  dispose  of  it,  Xerva  answered  that  he  might 
use  it:  but  the  finder  having  again  written,  saying  that 
it  was  a  fortune  too  large  for  the  use  of  a  private  per- 
son, Nerva,  pleased  with  his  honesty,  sent  him  vord 
that  then  he  might  abuse  it. 

Nerva  was  just  and  humane;  and  many  of  his  laws 
were  judicious.  The  mildness  of  his  government,  how- 
ever, encouraged  turbulence:  and  after  a  dangerous 
insurrection  of  the  prsetorian  guards,  he  determined  to 
obtain  the  assistance  of  a  man  whose  energy  might 


TRAJAN.  79 

assist  him  in  curbing  the  insolence  cf  the  soldiery.  He 
accordingly  adopted  as  his  successor  Ulpius  Trajan, 
who  then  governed  in  Germany ;  a  man  unconnected 
with  his  family,  but  well  qualified  to  give  the  assistance 
required.  This  was  the  last  of  his  public  acts  ;  he  soon 
afterwards  died,  having  reigned  only  about  a  year  and  a 
half. 


Trajan. 


Trajan,  like  Nerva,  was  a  Spaniard.  He  had  spent 
his  youth  in  the  army,  and  acquired  great  military  fame. 
On  being  informed  of  the  death  of  Nerva,  he  repaired  to 
Rome,  and  was  invested  with  the  imperial  dignity.  On 
delivering  the  sword  to  the  commander  of  the  pnetorian 
guards,  he  used  this  remarkable  expression :  "  Take 
this  sword  and  use  it :  if  I  have  merit,  for  me ;  if  not, 
against  me  :"'  and  added  that  he  who  gave  laws  was  the 
first  who  was  bound  to  obey  them. 

Trajan  was,  on  the  whole,  the  greatest  and  best  of  the 
Roman  emperors.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  love 
of  justice,  his  application  to  business,  his  moderation, 
his  liberality  to  those  who  deserved  it,  and  his  frugality 
in  his  own  expenses.  His  chief  failing  was  too  great  a 
love  of  military  glory.  This  passion  led  him  into  many 
wars,  in  which  he  headed  his  own  armies,  and  pene- 
trated into  the  remote  parts  of  Asia,  adding  to  the  Roman 


80  ADRIAN. 

empire  extensive  countries  in  that  quarter  of  the  world. 
These  conquests,  however,  were  more  brilliant  than  ad- 
vantageous ;  and,  while  they  extended  this  already 
overgrown  empire,  at  the  same  time  exhausted  its 
resources. 

The  only  blot  on  the  memory  of  Trajan  is  the  cruel 
persecution  of  the  Christian?,  which  began  about  the 
ninth  year  of  his  reign.  His  great  veneration  for  the 
established  superstition  made  him  an  enemy  to  every 
appearance  of  change,  and  he  was  alarmed  by  the  pro- 
gress of  Christianity.  Hence  he  was  induced  to  sanction 
the  persecution  of  those  who  professed  this  religion;  and 
great  numbers  of  them  were  cruelly  put  to  death  in  all 
parts  of  the  empire.  This  persecution  took  place  in  the 
year  107:  like  all  the  others  it  contributed  to  show  how 
unable  are  even  the  greatest  of  mortals  to  withstand  the 
power  and  to  defeat  the  purposes  of  God. 

Trajan  died  in  the  sixty-third  year  of  his  age,  and  the 
twentieth  year  of  his  reign  ;  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
nephew,  Adrian. 


Adrian. 


Adrian  began  his  reign  by  taking  a  course  quite  dil- 
ferent  from  that  of  the  late  emperor.  He  avoided  war  ; 
and,  being  anxious  only  to  preserve  the  ancient  limits 


AXTOMNtS.  81 

of  the  empire,  abandoned  all  Trajan's  extensive  con- 
quests in  the  East ;  making  the  river  Euphrates  the 
boundary  of  his  empire  in  that  direction.  Though  his 
private  character  was  stained  with  great  vices,  yet,  as 
a  monarch,  he  is  entitled  to  almost  unmixed  praise. 
With  a  view  of  settling  the  aifairs  of  the  empire,  and 
ascertaining  its  condition,  he  travelled  through  iilmost 
every  part  of  his  vast  dominions.  He  spent  some  time 
in  Britain,  and  built  the  famous  wall  which  goes  by  his 
name,  to  protect  his  subjects  from  the  barbarous  Cale- 
donians. 

The  persecution  of  the  Christians  was  very  violent  in 
his  reign ;  but  it  was  at  length  put  a  .-to;)  to  in  conse- 
quence of  the  arguments  of  Quadratus,  bishop  of  Athens, 
and  Aristides,  a  Christian  philosopher,  who  presented 
the  emperor  with  some  writings  in  favour  of  Christianity. 
He  died  in  the  year  139,  in  the  21st  year  of  his  reign. 

Adrufti,  some  time  before  his  death,  had  adopted 
Marcus  Antoninus,  by  whom  he  was  now  succeeded. 


Antoninus. 


This  emperor,  from  the  excellence  of  his  character,  had 
the  title  of  Pius  or  the  Pious,  bestowed  on  him  by  the 
senate.  He  was  generous  and  liberal  and  yet  prudent 
in  the  management  of  the  public  revenues.  The  most 
remarkable  circumstances  of  his  reign  were  his  stop 


82  COMMODVS. 

ping  the  persecution  of  the  Christians,  and  the  suppres- 
sion of  a  revolt  in  Britain.  He  was  more  anxious  to 
preserve  the  bounds  of  the  empire  than  to  extend  them  ; 
and  often  made  use  of  an  expression  ascribed  to  the 
great  Scipio,  that  he  would  rather  save  the  lii'e  of  one 
citizen,  than  kill  a  thousand  enemies.  lie  died,  la- 
mented by  his  subjects,  in  the  year  161 ;  in  the  seventy- 
firth  year  of  his  age,  and  twenty-third  of  his  reign  ;  and 
was  succeeded  by  Marcus  Aurelius,  whom  he  had 
adopted. 


Aurelius. 


Marcus  Aurelius,  on  succeeding  to  the  empire,  as- 
sumed the  name  of  Antoninus,  and  at  the  same  time 
joined  Lucius  Verus  with  him  in  the  government.  The 
two  emperors  governed  jointly  with  great  harmony  till 
Lucius  Verus  died,  while  engaged  in  an  expedition 
-t  the  Germans.  During  the  reign  of  Antoninus 
<  engaged  in  several  wars  against  the  German 
tribes,  who  had  taken  up  arms  against  the  Romans.  He 
died  in  the  year  180,  in  the  nineteeth  year  of  his  reign; 
having  acquired  the  character  of  a  distinguished  philo- 
sopher, as  well  as  of  a  virtuous  monarch. 

After  the  death  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  or  the  second 
Antoninus,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Commodus. 

The  disposition  of  Commodus  led  him  to  tread  in  the 
steps  of  Nero  and  Vitellius;  and  he  even  exceeded 
those  monsters  in  the  extent  of  his  cruelties  The  ao 


COMMODL'S. 


83 


Commodus. 


counts  given  of  his  barbarities  are  almost  incredible. 
He  is  said  to  have  cut  asunder  a  large  and  fat  man 
whom  he  met  in  the  street ;  partly  to  try  his  own 
strength,  which  was  extraordinary,  and  partly  for  the 
pleasure  of  seeing  the  entrails  drop  out.  He  took  plea- 
sure in  cutting  off  the  feet  and  putting  out  the  eyes  of 
persons  whom  he  met  in  his  rambles,  and  then  making 
them  the  subjects  of  his  witticisms.  He  murdered 
some  because  they  were  too  negligent,  and  others  be- 
cause they  were  too  trim,  in  their  attire.  Trusting  to 
his  strength  and  skill,  he  entered  the  lists  with  the  com- 
mon gladiators  in  the  circus,  and  is  said  to  have  come 
off  victor  above  seven  hundred  times. 

Few  public  events  took  place  in  the  reign  of  Cora- 
modus.  Several  revolts  and  conspiracies  were  organized 
against  him  without  success.  At  last  one  of  his  con- 
cubines, named  Martia,  having  discovered  that  he  medi- 
tated her  death,  gave  him  poison ;  and,  as  it  appeared 
to  operate  slowly,  caused  him  to  be  strangled  by  a 

restler,  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  his  reign. 


Aurelian. 


XIV.  PERTIVYX. — DIDIUS  JULIANUS. — SEPTIMIUS  SE- 
VERUS. — CARACALLA  AND  ("I ETA. — MACRIXUS. — HE- 
LioGABALts. — ALEXANDER  SEVERUS. — His  SUCCES- 
SORS, TO  PRODUS. 

HELVIVS  PERTINAX,  a  man  who  had  raised  himself 
from  a  low  condition,  was  chosen  emperor  on  the  death 
of  Commodus.  He  governed  with  wisdom  and  modera- 
tion ;  but  having  attempted  to  introduce  a  strict  disci- 
pline among  the  prrctdrian  guards,  who  had  been  cor- 
rupted by  the  indolence  and  profusion  of  former  emperors, 
an  insurrection  broke  out  among  them,  in  which  he  was 
murdered,  after  a  reign  of  three  months. 

The  soldiers,  whose  power  no  one  c  >uld  now  resist, 
resolved  to  sell  the  empire  to  the  highest  bidder.  It  was 
purchased  by  Didius  Julianus,  a  lawyer  of  immense 
wealth,  for  a  sum  equal  to  about  a  million  of  pounds  ster- 
ling. The  senate  was  obliged  to  confirm  the  choice  of 
the  soldiers.  Didius  wishing  to  enjoy  what  he  had 
bought  at  so  large  a  price,  gave  himself  up  to  sloth  and 
luxury,  and  made  himself  contemptible  both  to  the  sol- 
diers and  the  people.  Whenever  he  appeared  in  public, 
he  was  received  with  outcries  and  abuse  ;  the  people 

(84) 


SEPTIMIUS    SEVERUS. CARACALLA.  85 

calling  out  that  he  was  a  thief  and  had  stolen  the  empire. 
The  aiiltirs  of  the  empire  went  into  confusion  :  Niger,  the 
governor  of  Syria,  and  Severus,  commander  of  the  army 
in  Germany,  threw  oft' his  authority,  and  endeavoured  to 
obtain  the  sovereignty  lor  themselves.  Niger  trifle.!  away 
his  tune  in  his  province;  but  Severns  inarched  directly 
to  Rome.  On  hearing  of  the  approach  of  Severus,  the 
senate  and  people  openly  declared  agains-t  the  emperor. 
The  'Teed,  that  Juliunus  should  be  deposed,  * 

and  put  to  death,  and  that  Severns  should  be  proclaimed 
emperor  : — and  this  sentence  was  immediately  executed. 

Septimius  Severus  was  an  African  by  birth,  and  in  the 
forty-seventh  year  of  his  age  when  he  was  made  empe- 
ror. He  immediately  marched  against  his  rival.  Niger, 
whom  he  defeated  in  a  great  battle  upon  the  plains  of 
Issns,  the  spot  where  Alexander  the  Great  had  formerly 
conquered  Darius,  king  of  Persia.  Niger  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  put  to  death.  Severus  then  subdued  the 
Persians,  Parthians,  and  other  nations  who  had  taken 
up  arms,  on  pretence  of  supporting  the  cause  of  Niger, 
and  established  peace  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  empire. 

Severus  afterwards  undertook  an  expedition  into 
Britain,  where  the  Roman  power  was  in  danger  of  being 
destroyed.  He  attacked  the  Caledonians,  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  northern  part  of  the  island  ;  and,  after  a  de- 
structive warfare,  in  which  he  is  said  to  have  lost  .~iO,000 
men  by  fatigue  and  sickness,  he  forced  them  to  beg  for 
pe'ace,  and  surrender  a  considerable  part  of  their  country. 
He  then  built  the  famous  wall  across  the  island,  from 
the  river  Tyne  on  the  east  to  the  Sol  way  Firth  on  the 
west,  to  prevent  the  inroads  of  the  northern  barbarians. 
He  afterwards  retired  to  York,  where  he  died  in  the 
fifty-sixth  year  of  his  age,  and  eighteenth  of  his  reign. 

Severns  governed  the  empire  with  vigour  and  pru- 
dence :  his  disposition  was  warlike,  but  he  was  cunning 
and  faithless,  and  committed  many  acts  of  cruelty. 

Severus  was  succeeded   by  his  sons  Caracalla  and 
Geta,  who  were  jointly  proclaimed  emperors.     Caracalla 
was  fierce  and  cruel,  while  Geta  was  of  a  gentle  dispo- 
sition.    Caracalla  soon  afterwards,  by  the  murder  of  his 
8 


86  ALEXANDER    SEVERVS. 

brother,  obtained  the  sole  power,  and  proved  a  detestable 
tyrant  Relying  entirely  on  the  support  of  the  soldiers, 
upon  whom  he  bestowed  immense  suing,  extorted  from 
the  people,  he  disregarded  the  public  hatred.  He  was 
at  last  murdered  by  Macrinus,  one  of  his  officers,  in  the 
sixth  year  of  his  reign. 


Macrinus  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  soldiers ; 
but,  being  displeased  by  the  rigour  of  his  discipline, 
they  revolted,  and  set  up  against  him  Heliogabalus,  a 
natural  son  of  Caracalla.  Macriuus  was  put  to  death, 
and  Heliogabalus  became  emperor,  at  the  age  of  four- 
teen. 

Notwithstanding  his  'early  age,  Heliogabalus  (or 
Elagabalus)  was  a  monster  of  gluttony,  lust,  prodigality, 
and  cruelty.  His  reign  was  a  succession  of  infamous 
actions;  till  he  was  murdered  by  the  soldiers  in  his 
eighteenth  year. 

Heliogabalus  was  succeeded  by  his  cousin,  Alexander 
Severus,  a  youth  of  seventeen  years  of  age.  He  dis- 
played the  wisdom  and  virtues  of  a  riper  age;  and  his 
government  was  prosperous,  both  at  home  and  abroad. 
He  was  strict,  yet  merciful,  in  dispensing  justice.  He 
extended  his  clemency  even  to  the  Christians ;  and,  not- 
withstanding the  unfavourable  light  in  which  they  were 
then  regarded,  would  not  permit  them  to  be  persecuted, 
or  treated  with  injustice  A  contest  having  arisen  be- 


GALLIENUS.  87 

t\veen  them  and  a  company  of  tavern-keepers,  respecting1 
a  piece  of  ground,  which  the  one  party  claimed  as  a 
place  for  worship,  and  the  other  for  the  erection  of  houses 
of  entertainment,  he  decided  the  dispute  in  favour  of  the 
Christians,  saying',  '•  It  is  better  that  God  should  be  wor- 
shipped there  in  any  manner,  than  that  the  place  should 
be  employed  for  the  purpose  of  riot  and  drunkenness." 
He  was  successful  in  defending  the  extremities  of  the 
empire,  which  were  now  frequently  attacked  on  every 
side.  These  virtues,  however,  could  not  save  him  from 
the  lawless  violence  of  the  soldiers,  who  revolted,  and 
murdered  him,  in  the  twenty-ninth  year  of  his  age,  and 
thirteenth  of  his  reign. 

Maximinus,  the  mover  of  the  revolt,  was  (as  had  now 
become  usual)  proclaimed  emperor.  He  was  a  man  of 
great  stature  and  extraordinary  strength,  and  had  risen 
Irom  the  lowest  rank  in  the  army  by  his  merit  as  a  sol- 
dier. After  he  became  ernperor,  he  continued  todisplay 
his  military  talents  by  reducing  the  Germans  to  subjec- 
tion, but  his  government  was  cruel  and  tyrannical ;  and 
after  several  unsuccessful  revolts,  he  was  slain,  in  a 
mutiny  of  his  soldiers,  in  the  third  year  of  his  reign. 

Maximinus  was  succeeded  by  Gordian,  Gordian  by 
Phillip,  and  Phillip  by  Decius.  Of  these  emperors  it  is 
sufficient  to  say,  that  each  of  them,  after  a  short  reign, 
was  murdered  by  his  soldiers,  to  make  way  for  his  suc- 
cessor. 

Decius,  who  succeeded  in  the  year  248,  was  slain  in  a 
battle  with  the  Goths,  and  wyas  succeeded  by  Gallus,  who 
died  after  an  unhappy  reign  of  about  two  years,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Valerian. 

The  empire  was  now  in  a  deplorable  state.  It  was 
attacked  on  every  side  by  the  Goths  and  other  surround- 
ing nations.  Valerian,  though  seventy  years  of  age, 
made  a  vigorous  attempt  to  resist  the  Persians,  who  had 
invaded  Syria.  He  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner ; 
and,  after  being  treated  with  the  utmost  indignity  by 
Sapor,  the  Persian  king,  he  was  cruelly  put  to  death. 

Valerian  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Gallienus.  He 
was  a  man  of  infamous  character  ;  and  so  much  was  the 


88  PROBVS. 

distracted  state  of  the  empire  increased  by  the  hatred 
with  which  lie  was  regarded,  that  at  one  time  no  less 
than  nineteen  individuals  revolted  in  di!ll-n:r,t  provinces, 
and  made  pretensions  to  the  crown.  Several  of  those 
were  men  distinguished  for  ability  and  virtue,  who  were 
forced  into  this  measure  against  their  will.  "  You  have 
id  Sat  iirnimis,  one  of  their  numlvr,  to  the  ^Idiers, 
who  were  proclaiming  him,  "a  very  useful  commander. 
and  made  a  very  wretched  emperor!"  The  whole  of 
these  men  perished  by  violent  deaths;  and  Gallienus 
himself  was  murdered  by  Martian,  one  of  his  generals, 
and  succeeded  by  Flavius  Claudius. 

Claudius,  by  his  vigour  and  activity,  did  a  great  deal 
towards  retrieving  the  affairs  of  the  empire.  An  im- 
mense swarm  of  barbarians,  said  to  have  amounted  to 
300,000,  having  descended  the  Danube.  devas- 

tation whenever  they  came,  he  marc!;  :   them, 

and  cut  them  to  pieces.      He  was  eqi 
against  the  revolted  Germans;  but,  in  the  middle  of 
this  victorious  career,  he  died,  in  the  second  year  of  his 
reign. 

On  the  death  of  Claudius,  the  army  chose  as  his  suc- 
cessor, Aurelian,  who  was  esteemed  the  ablest  com- 
mander of  his  time.  He.jvas  equally  successful  as  his 
predecessor  had  been  in  subduing  the  foreign  enemies 
of  the  empire ;  but  his  severity  was  the  cause  of  his 
death.  His  secretary,  who  had  been  threatened  with 
punishment  for  some  fault,  stirred  up  a  conspiracy,  in 
which  the  emperor  was  murdered,  after  a  reign  of  about 
five  years. 

Aurelian  was  succeeded  by  Tacitus,  a  man  of  merit, 
who  died  in  about  six  months.  His  brother  Probus,  who 
was  his  successor,  was  distinguished  for  his  military 
talents,  and  his  successes  in  war.  He  subdued  almost 
all  the  enemies  of  Rome,  and  overcame  several  pre- 
tenders to  the  empire;  but  was  killed,  in  a  mutiny  of 
his  soldiers,  in  the  seventh  year  of  his  reign. 


XV.  CARUS.  —  DIOCLESIAN.  —  CONSTANT-INK.  —  ESTAB- 

LIMIMENT    OF    CHRISTIANITY. — CONSTANTINO'S    Sir- 

M)RS.  —  JULIAN    THE    APOSTATE.  —  YAM:M:M\N 

AND    VALEXS. — DIVISION   INTO   THE    WESTERN    AND 

K  \STEKX   EMPIRES. REIGNS   OF  THE    LAST    Li.MI'E- 

ROUS  OF  THE  WEST. FALL  OF  THE  EMPIRE. 

CARIS,  the  commander  of  the  praetorian  cnanls,  was 
chosen  by  the  army  as  the  successor  of  Probns.  '  lie 
joined  his  two  sons,  Carinus  and  Ntimerianus,  along 
with  him  in  the  government.  He  died  after  a  very 
short  reign ;  and  his  two  sons  were  both  killed  by  the 
mutinous  soldiery. 

Diocletian,  who  next  assumed  the  government,  had  a 
long  and  prosperous  reign.  He  repeatedly  defeated  the 
barbarous  nations  who  surrounded  the  Roman  empire, 
and  for  a  time  restrained  their  inroads.  During  his 
reign  the  Christians  suffered  their  last  great  p 
tion,  which  exceeded  all  the  former  in  severity.  Dio- 
clesian,  soon  after  his  accession,  made  his  general  Max- 
imian  his  partner  in  the  government ;  and  after  he  had 
reigned  twenty  years,  the  world  was  surprised  by  both 
himself  and  his  partner  laying  down  the  government  at 
the  same  time. 

During  the  obscure  and  short  reigns  of  several  suc- 
ceeding emperors,  the  history  of  Rome  presents  little 
that  is  worthy  of  notice,  till  the  accession  of  Constan- 
tine,  the  first  Christian  emperor,  which  took  place  in 
the  year  306. 

Constantino  succeeded  his  father  Constantino,  who 
died  in  Britain.  Maxentius,  a  person  of  low  extraction, 
but  much  favoured  by  the  soldiers,  having  pretended  to 
the  throne,  Constantine  marched  against  him  at  the  head 
of  an  army,  and  during  this  expedition,  made  a  public 
profession  of  Christianity.  Maxentius  was  defeited  and 
killed;  and  Constantine  afterwards  overcame  Liciniiis, 
a  general  who  had  assumed  the  government  in  the  east- 
8  *  t*=9) 


90 


CONST  ANTICS. 


Const  an  tine  tin1  <;iviit. 


ern  part  of  the  empire.  Having  thus  obtained  undis- 
puted power,  Constantino  established  the  Christian  reli- 
gion throughout  all  his  dominions. 

Scon  afterwards,  (Vn.-tantine  removed  the  seat  of 
government  from  Rome  to  Byzantium,  the  name  of 
which  he  changed  to  Constantinople. 

Constantino  died  in  the  year  ;i37,  after  a  reign  of 
thirty-two  years.  After  his  death,  his  three  sons  were 
proclaimed  joint  emperors.  In  consequence  of  their 
disagreements  with  each  other,  and  of  the  appearance 
of  several  pretenders  to  the  crown,  the  empire  was  fora 
number  of  years  wasted  by  civil  wars,  till  at  last  Con- 
stantius,  one  of  the  sons  of  Constantino,  remained  its 
eole  master. 


Constunthis. 


During  these  divisions,  the  Germans  and  other  bar- 
barous nations,  had  ravaged  different  provinces  of  the 


DIVISION   OF   THE    EMPIRE.  91 

empire.  Constantius,  not  thinking  it  safe  to  leave 
Italy  himself,  for  the  purpose  of  opposing  them,  raised 
his  cousin  Julian  to  the  dignity  of  Caesar,*  and  sent 
him  against  the  barbarians  who  had  invaded  Gaul. 
Julian  drove  the  invaders  out  of  that  province;  and, 
following  them  into  Germany,  compelled  them  to  sue 
for  peace. 

The  Persians  having  begun  hostilities,  Constantino 
himself  marched  against  them  ;  and  Julian,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  his  absence,  had  himself  proclaimed  emperor. 
Constantius,  giving  up  his  expedition  against  the  Per- 
sians, marched  against  the  usurper,  but  died  before  he 
reached  him. 

Julian  now  assumed  the  imperial  dignity  without  op- 
position. He  had  been  educated  in  the  Christian  reli- 
gion, but  had  abandoned  it  secretly  some  time  before, 
He  now  openly  avowed  his  paganism,  and  caused  the 
temples  of  the  heathen  gods  to  be  again  opened.  From 
this  act  he  is  called  the  Apostate. 

He  afterwards  marched  against  the  Persians,  and 
penetrated  into  their  country ;  but,  after  raftering  great 
losses,  he  was  compelled  to  begin  a  retreat,  during  which 
he  was  killed  in  a  skirmish,  in  the  year  363,  after  a  reign 
of  twenty  months. 

Julian  was  succeeded  by  Jovian,  who  concluded  a 
peace  with  the  Persians.  He  restored  the  public  profes- 
sion of  the  Christian  religion,  and  revoked  all  the  laws 
against  it  made  by  Julian.  He  died  suddenly,  after  a 
reien  of  only  seven  months. 

Vaientinian,  being  now  chosen  emperor,  made  his  bro- 
ther Valens  his  partner  in  the  sovereignty,  and  separa- 
ted the  empire  into  tv.o  great  divisions.  The  Western 
Empire,  with  Rome  for  its  capital,  he  retained  to  him- 
self: giving  to  Valens  the  Eastern  Empire  of  which 
the  capital  was  Constantinople. 

Vaientinian  was  employed  during  his  whole  reign  in 

*  Caesar  was  the  title  given  by  the  emperors  to  the  persons 
whom  they  adopted  as  their  successors,  with  royal  authority 
subordinate  to  their  own. 


92  HONORIUS    JLXD    ARCADIVS. 

repelling  the  inroads  of  the  barbarians,  which  were  now 
unceasing.  He  died  in  the  year  375,  in  the  twelfth  year 
of  his  reign,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Gratian. 

Soon  afterwards,  Gratian,  by  the  death  of  Valens,  the 
eastern  emperor,  became  master  of  the  whole  empire. 
He  took  Theodoeiua  as  his  partner,  and  committed  to 
him  the  government  of  the  eastern  provinces.  The 
empire  was  now  attadted  by  the  Goths  and  other  barba- 
rous nations,  and  Theodosius,  though  he  was  an  able 
commander,  could  not  prevent  a  number  of  provinces 
from  falling  into  the  hands  of  those  barbarians. 

In  3S3,  a  military  commander  of  the  name  of  Maxi- 
mus,  revolted  against  Gratian,  and  having  got  him  into 
his  power,  put  him  to  death.  The  usurper  was  soon 
overcome  and  executed  by  Theodosius. 

'.osiusdied  in  395,  after  a  reign  of  sixteen  years : 
having  again  divided  the  government,  by  appointing  his 
son  Honorius  emperor  of  the  west,  and  bequeathing  the 
eastern  empire  to  Arcadius. 

The  western  empire  now  fell  rapidly  into  decay.  Im- 
mediately on  the  death  of  Theodosius,  the  Goths,  under 
their  celebrated  king,  Alaric,  invaded  Italy.  Honorius 
was  weak  and  timid ;  but  his  general,  Stilicho,  a  brave 
and  able  commander,  defeated  the  invaders  and  drove 
them  out  of  Italy. 

Immediately  after  this  deliverance,  another  immense 
swarm  of  barbarians,  from  the  countries  adjoining  the 
Baltic  Sea,  poured  into  Italy,  under  a  king  called  Rho- 
dogast,  or  Radagaisus.  This  multitude,  consisting  of 
not  less  than  200,000  fighting  men,  besides  women  and 
children,  having  crossed  without  resistance,  the  Alps, 
the  river  Po,  and  the  Appenines,  and  ravaged  and 
destroyed  many  cities,  laid  siege  to  Florence.  Here, 
however,  they  were  attacked  by  Stilicho,  and  totally 
destroyed ;  and  their  chief,  being  taken  prisoner,  was 
put  to  death.  Stilicho  was  thus  a  second  time  the  de- 
liverer of  Italy. 

Notwithstanding  these  signal  services,  Stilicho  fell  a 
victim  to  the  jealousy  of  the  emperor,  who  appears  to 
have  feared  the  great  powers  and  abilities  of  his  vie- 


MAXIMUS.  93 

torious  general.  On  some  charges  of  treasonable  con- 
duct Sli.iciio  was  put  to  death ;  and  his  family  and 
friends  perished  along  \\  ith  him. 

Alaric  again  invaue.l  Italy  ;  and  having  taken  Rome, 
delivered  it  up  to  his  soldiers  to  be  plundt  red,  \viio  set  it 
on  fire  in  different  places,  and  murdered  a  great  number 
of  tlie  inhabit-.uit>;  atler  which  he  left  Italy.  '. 
Honorius  still  in  possession  of  the  throne.  This  em- 
peror died  in  423,  after  an  unhappy  reign  of  twenty- 
eight  \ 

Honorus  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Valentinian, 
who  was  .-carcely  seated  on  the  throne,  when  the  empire 
was  invaded  by  the  Huns,  under  the  famous  king  Attila. 
They  were  vigorously  resisted,  and  driven  back  by  the 
Roman  general  Aetius :  but  this  able  commander  was 
soon  after  murdered  by  Valentinian  with  his  own  hand, 
in  consequence  of  a  suspicion  that  he  aspired  to  the 
empire.  Vnlentinian  was  killed  by  a  senator  named 
Maximus,  whose  wife  he  had  violated.  Maximus  seized 
the  empire,  and  forced  the  emperors  widow,  Eudoxia, 
to  marry  him.  Eudoxia,  in  revenge  for  this  treatment, 
invited  Genserir.  king  of  the  Vandals,  to  invade  Italy. 
Genseric  entered  Italy  with  an  army  ;  on  his  appearance 
before  the  gates  of  Rome,  a  tumult  took  place  in  the 
city,  in  which  Maximus  was  slain ;  and  Genseric 
ent'-ivd  it,  without  any  opposition,  plundered  it  of  every- 
thing the  soldiers  of  Alaric  had  spared,  and  returned 
with  the  spoils  to  Carthage,  from  whence  he  had  come. 

After  the  death  of  Maximus,  Avitus,  whn  had  com- 
manded the  forces  in  Gaul,  was  raise J  to  the  throne  by 
Theodoric,  king  of  the  Goths,  who.  in  the  character  of 
an  ally  of  the  Romans,  had  acquired  an  irresistible  con- 
trol in  the  affairs  of  the  empire.  After  a  short  and  con- 
temptible reign,  Avitus  was  depos*'.]  by  <  Vunt  Ricimer, 
a  Goth,  one  of  the  principal  commanders  of  the  barba- 
rian troops,  who  now  formed  the  military  defence  of 
Italy.  During  the  vacancy  thus  produced,  Ricimer  go- 
verned Italy  under  the  title  of  patrician;  but  at  last 
consented  to  the  wish  of  the  Romans,  that  Majorian 
should  be  made  emporor. 


94  ANTHEMIUS. 

Majorian,  who  was  chosen  emperor  in  the  ycai  459, 
was  possessed  of  qualities  which,  in  more  prosperous 
times,  would  have  made  him  a  great  monarch.  He 
defeated  the  Vandals,  and  drove  them  out  of  Italy  ;  and 
he  determined  to  attack  them  in  their  settlements  on 
the  coast  of  Africa.  For  this  purpose  he  fitted  out  a 
fleet,  which  was  surprised  and  burnt  by  the  enemy  ;  and 
Ricimer,  who  was  now  jealous  of  his  great  talents  and 
increasing  power,  made  this  misfortune  a  pretext  tor 
stirring  up  a  sedition  against  him,  in  which  he  was 
slain. 

The  government  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  Ricimer ; 
who,  though  he  refused  the  title  of  emperor  or  king, 
ruled  with  nbsolute  power.  During  what  may  be  called 
his  reiirn,  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  a  name  to  which  the 
western  empire  was  gradually  reduced,  was  afflicted  by 
the  incessant  invasions  of  the  Vandals,  who  every  year 
sent  out  a  formidable  fleet  from  the  port  of  Carthage  and 
made  de.-ri'nts.  not  only  on  Italy,  but  on  all  the  countries 
bordering  upon  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Ricimer,  re- 
duced to  the  greatest  ditliculties,  by  these  constant 
attacks,  was  at  length  obliged  to  apply  for  assistance  to 
the  Emperor  Leo.  who  then  governed  the  eastern  em- 
pire, and  to  agree  that  Italy  should  receive  an  emperor 
chosen  by  that  monarch. 

Leo  invested  Anthemius,  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished of  his  subjects,  with  the  dignity  of  emperor  of 
the  West;  and  the  appointment  of  Anthemius  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  with  Ricimer. 
But  discord  soon  arose  between  the  emperor  and  the  pow- 
erful patrician.  Ricimer,  who  could  not  brook  a  supe- 
rior, retired  from  Rome,  and  fixed  his  residence  at  Milan, 
and  Italy  was  gradually  divided  into  two  independent 
kingdoms.  Open  war  soon  broke  out  between  these 
rivals.  Ricimer  marched  to  Rome,  and,  after  a  siege 
of  three  months,  took  the  city  by  assault;  Anthemius 
was  murdered,  and  the  city  given  up  to  be  plundered  by 
the  barbarians. 

The  events  of  the  concluding  years  of  the  western 
empire  arc  indistinctly  recorded  by  historians.  On  the 


EXTINCTION    OF    THE    EMPIRE.  HQ 

death  of  Anthemius,  Olybrius  was  raised  to  the  empire. 
He  died  soon  after  his  accession:  and  the  throne  was 
usurped  by  Glycerins,  on  whose  deposition.  Julius  Nepos 
succeeded.  Julius  Xepos.  in  a  lew  months,  \vas  deposed 
by  his  general,  Orestes,  who  caused  his  son  Augustulus 
to  be  proclaimed  emperor,  in  the  year  475. 

In  the  Jbllowinar  year,  the  barbarians  who  served  in 
the  Roman  armies,  demanded,  as  a  reward  for  their  ser- 
vices, the  third  part  of  the  lands  in  Italy.  This  being1 
refused  by  Orestes,  who  administered  the  government 
(his  soa  being  a  mere  boy),  the  barbarians  revolteJ.  and 
placing  at  their  head  a  man  named  Odoacer  (a  private 
soldier  of  the  guards,  but  possessed  of  uncommon  abili- 
ties), marched  against  Orestes  and  Augustulus.  The 
emperor  and  his  father  took  refuge  in  Pavia  ;  but  Odoa- 
cer, having  assaulted  an<i  taken  the  place,  put  Orestes 
to  death,  but  spared  Augustulus  on  account  of  his 
youth. 

Rome  immediately  submitted  ;  Odoacer  caused  him- 
self to  be  proclaimed  king  of  Italy ;  and  thus  was  finally 
extinguished  the  western  empire. 


XVI.  THE  EASTERN  EMPIRE  USURPED  BY  BASILISCUS.— 

HE    IS    STARVED    TO    DEATH. THE    ORIGIN    OF    THE 

DECLINE    OP    THE    ROMAN    EMPIRE. — IT    REVIVES 

UNDER   JlSTIN   AND  JUSTINIAN. BELISAKIIS. — THE 

EASTERN    EMPIRE — WAR    WITH   THE   PERSIANS. — 
THE  SARAC  I:.NS. 

FROM  the  time  of  Theodosius  to  the  time  when  the 
Roman  empire  of  the  west  was  totally  destroyed  by  the 
Goths,  we  find  but  very  little  remarkable  in  the  history 
of  Constantinople.  At  this  time  the  eastern  empire 
was  usurped  by  Basiliscus,  who  had  driven  out  Zeno 
the  lawful  emperor;  being  assisted  in  his  conspiracy 
by  the  Empress  Verina  his  sister.  Zeno  fled  into 
Isauria,  whither  he  was  pursued  by  Illus  and  Tre- 
condes,  two  of  the  usurper's  generals;  who  having 
easily  defeated  the  few  troops  he  had  with  him,  forced 
the  unhappy  prince  to  shut  himself  up  in  a  castle, 
which  they  immediately  invested.  But  in  a  short  time 
Basiliscus  having  .disobliged  the  people  by  his  cruelty, 
avarice,  and  other  bad  qualities,  for  which  lie  was  no 
less  remarkable  than  his  predecessor  had  been,  his 
generals  joined  with  Zeno,  whom  they  restored  to  the 
throne.  After  his  restoration,  Zeno  having  i:ot  Basilis- 
cus into  his  power,  confined  him  in  a  castle  of  Cappa- 
docia  together  with  his  wife  Zenonides,  wh<-re  they 
both  perished  with  hunger  and  cold.  This  happened 
in  the  year  467,  after  Basiliscus  had  reigned  about 
twenty  months.  During  the  time  of  this  u>urp:ition  a 
dreadful  fire  happened  at  Constantinople,  winch  con- 
sumed great  part  of  the  city,  with  the  library,  contain- 
ing 1-20,000  volumes. 

The  misfortunes  which  Zeno  had  undergone  did  not 
work  any  reformation  upon  him.  He  still  continued 
the  same  vicious  courses  which  had  given  oec  ision  to 
the  usurpation  of  Basiliscus.  Other  conspiracies  were 
formed  against  him,  but  he  had  the  good  fortune  to 
escape  them.  He  engaged  in  a  war  with  the  Ostro- 

(96) 


JUSTIN.  '     97 

goths,  in  which  he  proved  unsuccessful,  and  was  obliged 
to  yield  the  provinces  of  Lower  Dacia  and  Mecsia  to 
them.  In  a  short  time,  however,  Theodoric  their  king 
made  an  irruption  into  Thrace,  and  advanced  within 
fifteen  miles  of  Constantinople,  with  a  design  to  besiege 
that  capital:  but  the  following  year,  485,  they  retired 
in  order  to  attack  (Xioacer,  King-  of  Italy;  of  which 
country  Theodoric  was  proclaimed  king  in  493.  The 
Emperor  Zeno  died  in  the  year  491,  in  the  sixty-fifth 
year  of  his  age,  and  seventeenth  of  his  reign. 

The  Roman  empire  had  now  for  a  long  time  been 
on  the  decline  :  the  ancient  valour  and  military  disci- 
pline which  had  for  such  a  long  time  rendered  the  Ro- 
mans superior  to  other  nations,  had  greatly  degene- 
rated ;  so  that  they  were  now  by  no  means  so  power- 
ful as  formerly.  The  tumults  and  disorders  which  had 
happened  in  the  empire  from  time  to  time  by  the  many 
usurpations,  had  contributed  also  to  weaken  it  very 
much.  But  what  proved  of  the  greatest  detriment 
was  the  allowing  vast  swarms  of  barbarians  to  settle 
in  the  different  provinces,  and  to  serve  in  the  Roman 
empire  in  separate  and  independent  bodies.  This  had 
proved  the  immediate  causa  of  the  dissolution  of  the 
western  empire ;  but  as  it  affected  the  eastern  parts 
less,  the  Constantinopolitan  empire  continued  lor  up- 
wards of  nine  hundred  years  after  the  western  one  was 
totally  dissolved.  The  weak  and  imprudent  adminis- 
tration of  Zeno,  and  Anastasius  who  succeeded  him, 
had  reduced  the  eastern  empire  still  more;  and  it 
might  possibly  have  expired  in  a  short  time  after  the 
we.- tern  one,  had  not  the  wise  and  vigorous  conduct  of 
Justin,  and  his  partner  Justinian,  revived  in  some 
measure  the  ancient  martial  spirit  which  had  origi- 
nally raised  the  Roman  empire  to  its  highest  pitch  of 
grandeur. 

Justin  ascended  the  throne  in  518.  In  521  he  en- 
gaged in  a  war  with  the  Persians,  who  had  all  along 
been  very  formidable  enemies  to  the  Roman  name. 
Against  them  he  employed  the  famous  Belisarius;  but 
of  him  we  hear  nothing  remarkable  till  after  theacces- 
9 


98  JUSTINIAN. 

sion  of  Justinian.  This  prince  was  the  nephew  of  Justin, 
and  was  by  him  taken  as  his  partner  in  the  empire  in 
527;  and  the  same  year  Justin  died,  in  the  seventy- 
seventh  year  of  his  age  and  ninth  of  his  reign.  Justinian 
being  now  sole  master  of  the  empire,  bent  his  whole 
force  against  the  Persians.  The  latter  proved  success- 
ful in  the  first  engagement ;  but  were  soon  after  utterly 
defeated  at  Dara.  They  advanced  against  that  place, 
which  was  defended  by  Belisarius,  with  only  25,000 
men  ;  and  so  confident  were  they  of  success,  that  the 
Persian  general  issued  a  proclamation  signifying  the 
day  and  the  hour  on  which  the  citizens  should  prepare 
a  buth  for  his  refreshment  after  the  toils  of  victory. 
The  two  armies  met  in  the  open  plain,  in  front  of  the 
town.  At  first  the  Roman  centre  was  shaken  ;  but 
Belisarius,  by  a  rapid  charge,  captured  the  Persian 
standard,  and  compelled  the  enemy  to  fly,  leaving  8000 
of  their  companions  dead  on  the  field  of  battle.  In  the 
next  campaign,  the  Persians  were  pursued  from  post 
to  post,  and  Belisarius  would  have  driven  them  out  of 
Syria,  without  any  opposition,  had  not  the  Arabs  in 
the  Roman  army  deserted,  and  left  the  Romans,  thus 
greatly  reduced  in  numbers,  to  withstand  the  attacks 
of  innumerable  hosts.  They  were  defended,  however, 
by  their  heroic  and  persevering  courage ;  Belisarius, 
himself,  dismounting  from  his  horse  and  fighting  at 
their  head  on  foot,  showed  them  that  intrepidity  was 
their  only  safety.  After  a  conflict  of  many  hours,  the 
Persians  withdrew  and  embarked  in  silence,  under 
the  cover  of  night. 

The  war  continued  with  various  success  during  the 
first  five  years  of  Justinian's  reign.  In  the  sixth  year 
a  peace  was  concluded  upon  the  following  terms  :  1 
That  the  Roman  emperor  should  pay  to  Chosroes,  the 
King  of  Persia,  1000  pounds  weight  of  gold.  2.  That 
both  princes  should  restore  the  places  they  had  taken 
during  the  wars.  3.  That  the  commander  of  the  Ro- 
man forces  should  no  longer  reside  at  Dara  on  the 
Persian  frontiers,  but  at  a  place  called  Constantina  in 
Mesopotamia,  as  he  had  formerly  done.  4.  That  the 


TUMULT   AT   CONSTANTINOPLE.  99 

Iberians,  who  had  sided  with  the  Romans,  should  be  at 
liberty  to  return  to  their  own  country  or  stay  at  Constan- 
tinople. This  peace,  concluded  in  532,  was  styled 
eternal ;  but  in  the  event  proved  of  very  short  duration. 

About  this  time  happened  at  Constantinople  the 
greatest  tumult  mentioned  in  history.  It  began  among 
the  different  factions  in  the  circus,  but  ended  in  an 
opentebellion.  The  multitude,  highly  dissatisfied  with 
the  conduct  of  John,  the  prefectus  prectorio,  and  of 
Trebonianus,  thenquestor,  forced  Hypatius,  nephew  to 
the  Emperor  Anastasius,  to  accept  the  empire,  and  pro- 
claimed him  with  great  solemnity  in  the  forum.  As 
the  two  above-mentioned  ministers  were  greatly  ab- 
horred by  tbe  populace  on  account  of  their  avarice, 
Justinian  immediately  discharged  them,  hoping  by  that 
means  to  appease  the  tumult :  but  this  was  so  far  from 
answering  the  purpose,  that  the  multitude  only  grew 
the  more  outrageous  upon  it ;  and  most  of  the  senators 
joining  them,  the  emperor  was  so  much  alarmed,  that 
he  had  thoughts  of  abandoning  the  city  and  making 
his  escape  by  sea. 

In  this  dilemma  the  Empress  Theodora  encouraged 
and  persuaded  him  rather  to  part  with  his  life  than  the 
kingdom ;  and  he  at  last  resolved  to  defend  himself  to 
the  utmost,  with  the  few  senators  who  had  not  yet 
abandoned  him.  In  the  mean  time,  the  rebels  having 
attempted  in  vain  to  force  the  gates  of  the  palace, 
carried  Hypatius  in  triumph  to  the  circus;  where, 
while  he  was  beholding  the  sports  from  the  imperial 
throne,  amidst  the  shouts  and  acclamations  of  the  peo- 
ple, Belisarius,  who  had  been  recalled  from  Persia, 
entered  the  city  with  a  considerable  body  of  troops. 

Being  then  apprised  of  the  usurpation  of  Hypatius, 
he  marched  straight  to  the  circus ;  fell  sword  in  hand 
upon  the  disarmed  multitude;  and  with  the  assistance 
of  a  band  of  Heruli,  headed  by  Mundus,  Governor  of 
Illyricum,  cut  about  30,000  of  them  in  pieces.  Hypa- 
tius, the  usurper,  and  Pompeius,  another  of  the  nephews 
of  Anastasius,  were  taken  prisoners  and  carried  to  the 
emperor,  by  whose  orders  they  were  both  beheaded, 


100  TRIUMPH   OF   BELISARIUS. 

and  their  bodies  cast  into  the  sea.  Their  estates  were 
confiscated,  and  likewise  the  estates  of  such  senators 
as  had  joined  with  them  ;  but  the  emperor  caused  great 
part  of  their  lands  and  effects  to  be  afterwards  re- 
stored, together  with  their  honours  and  dignities,  to 
their  children. 

Justinian  having  now  no  other  enemy  to  contend 
with,  turned  his  arms  against  the  Vandals  in  Africa. 
His  general,  Belisai  ius,  completely  subdued  the  Van- 
dals, and  captured  their  capital,  Carthage ;  and  soon 
after  the  surrounding  country  submitted  to  his  arms; 
and  the  more  distant  provinces  were  successively  sub- 
dued by  the  terror  of  his  name  and  the  report  of  his 
great  success.  Tripoli  voluntarily  offered  her  alle- 
giance; Sardinia  and  Corsica  surrendered;  and  the 
islands  of  Majorca,  Minorca,  and  Yvica,  acknowledged 
their  dependence  on  the  kingdom  of  Africa.  Belisarius 
returned  to  Constantinople  in  534,  and  was  the  first 
general  who,  in  that  city,  obtained  the  honours  of  a 
triumph. 

From  the  palace  of  Belisariu?,  the  procession  was 
conducted  through  the  principal  streets  to  the  hippo- 
drome. The  wealth  of  nations  was  displayed,  and  the 
trophies  of  martial  or  effeminate  luxury,  rich  armour, 
golden  thrones,  and  the  chariots  of  state  which  had 
been  used  by  the  Vandal  queen.  Then  followed  the 
massive  furniture  of  the  royal  palace,  precious  stones 
of  great  splendour,  statues  and  vases  of  the  most  elegant 
forms,  the  more  substantial  treasure  of  gold,  and  the 
holy  vessels  of  the  Jewish  temple,  which  were  finally 
deposited  in  the  Christian  church  of  Jerusalem.  A 
long  train  of  the  noblest  Vandals  reluctantly  advanced, 
gracing  the  triumph  by  their  lofty  stature  and  manly 
countenances.  Gelimer,  their  king,  slowly  advanced; 
he  was  clad  in  a  purple  robe,  and  still  maintained  the 
majesty  of  a  king.  Not  a  tear  escaped  from  his  eyes, 
not  a  sigh  was  heard  ;  but  his  pride  or  piety  derived 
some  secret  consolation  from  the  words  of  Solomon, 
which  he  frequently  repeated,  Vanity  !  vanity !  all  is 
vanity.  Belisarius  marched  on  foot  at  the  head  of  his 


TRIUMPH   OF    EELISARR'3. 


101 


Triumph  of  IMisarius. 

army;  and  Ihc  procession  entering  the  gate  of  the 
hippodrome,  was  saluted  by  the  acclamations  of  the 
senate  and  people,  and  halted  before  the  throne,  where- 
on Justinian  and  Theodora  were  seated  to  receive  the 
homage  of  the  captive  king  and  the  victorious  hero. 
With  a  little  violence,  Gelimer  was  persuaded  to  per- 
form the  customary  adoration,  by  falling  prostrate 
before  the  throne,  and  respectfully  touching  the  foot- 
stool of  the  emperor.  At  another  triumphal  procession 
on  the  same  day  Belisarius  was  borne  on  the  shoulders 
of  African  slaves  through  the  streets,  scattering1  coins, 
rich  belts,  and  golden  cups  among  the  people.  Beli- 
sarius was  rewarded  with  the  consulship  for  the  ensu- 
ing year. 

In  537,  Belisarius  was  sent  by  Justinian  against  the 
Goths  in  Italy.     He  soon  reduced  Naples,  Apulia,  and 


102  INVASION  OF   THE   GOTHS. 

Calabria;  and  when  he  approached  the  city  of  Rome, 
%  the  gates  were  thrown  open  to  him  by  the  people,  who 
exclaimed  that  the  apostolic  throne,  and  the  tombs  of 
the  Cffisars,  should  no  longer  be  violated  by  the  barba- 
rians of  the  north.  They  fondly  hailed  the  restoration 
'of  a  Roman  emperor,  as  a  new  era  of  freedom  and 
prosperity ;  but  they  trembled,  when  they  heard  that 
the  Goths  intended  to  besiege  their  city,  and  that 
Belisarius  had  resolved  to  defend  the  place  to  the  last 
extremity. 

Vitiges,  the  Gothic  king  of  Italy,  did  not  spend  the 
winter  in  inaction.  From  their  rustic  habitations, 
from  their  distant  garrisons,  the  Goths  assembled  at 
Ravenna  for  the  defence  of  their  country  ;  and  such 
were  their  numbers,  that  after  an  army  had  been  de- 
tached for  the  reJief  of  Dalmatia,  one  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  fighting  men  marched  under  the  royal  stand- 
ard. According  to  the  degrees  of  rank  or  merit,  the 
Gothic  King  distributed  arms  and  horses,  rich  gifts  and 
liberal  promises.  He  moved  along  the  Flaminian  way, 
declined  the  useless  sieges  of  Perusia  and  Spoleto,  re- 
spected the  impregnable  rock  of  Narni,  and  arrived 
within  two  miles  of  Rome,  at  the  foot  of  the  Milvian 
bridge. 

That  narrow  passage  was  fortified  by  a  tower,  and 
Belisarius  had  computed  the  value  of  the  twenty  days 
which  must  be  lost  by  ihe  Goths  in  the  construction  of 
another  bridge.  But  the  consternation  of  the  sol- 
diers of  the  tower,  who  either  fled  or  deserted,  dis- 
appointed his  hopes,  and  botrayed  his  person,  into  the 
most  imminent  danger.  At  the  head  of  one  thousand 
horse,  the  Roman  general  sallied  from  the  Flaminian 
gate  to  mark  the  ground  of  an  advantageous  position, 
and  to  survey  the  camp  of  the  barbarians ;  while  he 
still  believed  them  on  the  other  side  of  the  Tiber,  he 
was  suddenly  encompassed  and  assaulted  by  their  in- 
numerable squadrons.  The  fate  of  Italy  depended  on 
his  life :  and  the  deserters  pointed  to  the  conspicuous 
horse,  a  bay  with  a  white  face  which  he  rode  on  that 
memorable  day.  "Aim  at  the  bay  horse,"  was  the 


SIEGE   OF    ROME.  103 

universal  cry.  Every  bow  was  bent,  every  javelin 
was  directed,  against  that  fatal  object,  and  the  com- 
mand was  repeated  and  i  'beyed  by  thousands  who  were 
ignorant  of  its  real  motive.  The  bolder  barbarians 
advanced  to  the  more  honorable  combat  of  swords  and 
spears  ;  and  the  praise  of  an  enemy  has  graced  the  fall 
of  Visandus,  the  standard-bearer,  who  maintained  his 
foremost  station,  till  he  was  pierced  with  thirteen 
wounds,  perhaps  by  the  hand  of  Belisarius  himself. 
The  Roman  general  was  strong,  active,  and  dexterous. 
On  every  side  he  discharged  his  weighty  and  mortal 
strokes.  His  faithful  guards  imitated  his  valor  and 
defended  his  person  ;  and  the  Goths,  after  the  loss  of  a 
thousand  men,  fled  before  the  arms  of  a  hero.  They 
were  rashly  pursued  to  their  camp;  and  the  Romans 
oppressed  by  multitudes,  made  a  gradual,  and  at  length 
a  precipitate  retreat  to  the  gates  of  the  city.  The 
gates  were  shut  against  the  fugitives ;  and  the  public 
terror  was  increased  by  the  report  that  Belisarius  was 
slain.  His  countenance  was  indeed  disfigured  by 
sweat,  dust,  and  blood ;  his  voice  was  hoa.r?e ;  his 
strength  was  almost  exhausted  ;  but  his  unconquerable 
spirit  still  remained.  He  imparted  that  spirit  to  his 
desponding  companions,  and  their  last  desperate  charge 
was  felt  by  the  living  barbarians  as  if  a  new  army, 
vigorous  and  entire,  had  been  poured  from  the  city. 
The  Flaminian  gate  \vas  thrown  open  to  a  real  triumph 
on  the  return  of  the  general ;  but  it  was  not  till  Beli- 
sarius had  visited  every  post,  and  provided  for  the 
public  safety,  that  lie  could  be  persuaded  by  his  wife 
and  friends,  to  taste  the  needful  refreshments  of  food 
and  sleep. 

After  this  firstand  unsuccessful  trial  of  their  enemies, 
the  whole  army  of  the  Goths  passed  the  Tiber,  and 
formed  the  siege  of  the  city,  which  continued  above  a 
year,  till  their  final  departure.  Eighteen  days  were 
employed  by  both  armies  in  strengthening  their  fortifica- 
tions and  in  preparing  all  the  instruments  of  attack  and 
defence  which  antiquity  had  invented.  On  the  morn- 
ing of  the  nineteenth  day,  a  general  attack  was  made 


104 


PIKOK    OF    ROME. 


Koaie. 


by  the  barbarians,  from  the  Pramestine  gate  to  the 
Vatican.  Seven  Gothic  columns,  with  their  military 
engines  advanced  to  the  assault,  and  the  Romans  who 
lined  the  ramparts,  listened  with  doubt  and  anxiety  to 
the  cheerful  assurances  of  their  commander.  As  soon 
as  the  enemy  approached  the  ditch,  on  the  outside  of 
the  wall,  Belisarius  himself  drew  the  first  arrow  ;  and 
such  was  his  strength  and  dexterity,  that  he  transfixed 
the  foremost  of  the  barbarian  leaders.  A  shout  of  ap- 


SIEGE    OF    ROME.  105 

plause  and  victory  was  re-echoed  along  the  wall.  He 
drew  a  second  arrow,  and  the  stroke  was  followed  with 
the  same  success,  and  the  same  acclamation.  The 
Roman  general  then  gave  the  word,  that  the  archers 
should  aim  at  the  teams  of  oxen.  They  were  instantly 
covered  with  mortal  wounds;  the  towers  which  they 
drew  remained  useless  and  immovable,  and  a  single 
moment  disconcerted  the  laborious  projects  of  the 
king  of  the  Goths.  After  this  disappointment,  Vitiges 
continued,  or  feigned  to  continue,  the  assault  of  the 
Salarian  gate,  that  he  might  divert  the  attention  of  his 
adversary,  while  his  principal  forces  more  strenuously 
attacked  the  Prosnestint1  gate,  and  the  tomb  of  Hadrian, 
at  the  distance  of  three  miles  from  each  other.  Beli- 
sarius  calmly  surveyed  the  whole  plan  of  attack  and 
defence,  transported  himself  to  the  places  where  the 
greatest  danger  threatened,  and  communicated  his 
spirit  to  his  soldiers  in  calm  and  decisive  orders.  The 
contest  was  fiercely  maintained  from  the  morning  till 
the  evening,  when  the  Goths  were  repulsed  on  all 
sides.  Thirty  thousand  of  them,  according  to  the  con- 
fessfon  of  their  own  chiefs,  perished  in  this  bloody  ac- 
tion ;  and  the  multitude  of  the  wounded  was  equal  to 
that  of  the  slain. 

On  the  retreat  of  the  Goths,  Belisarius  sallied  from 
the  gates,  and  reduced  the  hostile  engines  of  war  to 
ashes.  Such  was  the  loss  and  consternation  of  the 
Goths,  that,  from  that  day,  the  siege  of  Rome,  de- 
generated into  a  tedious  and  indolent  blockade;  and 
they  were  incessantly  harassed  by  the  Roman  general, 
who,  in  frequent  sallies  and  skirmishes,  destroyed 
above  five  thousand  of  their  bravest  troops. 

The  siege  of  Rome  was  maintained  for  one  year  and 
nine  days,  during  which  time,  nearly  the  whole  nation 
of  the  Ostrogoths  perished  before  her  walls.  While 
Vitiges  struggled  with  his  fortune,  while  he  hesitated 
between  shame  and  ruin,  his  retreat  was  hastened  by 
domestic  alarms.  Before  he  retired,  he  made  a  last 
effort  to  surprise  or  storm  the  city.  Failing  in  this, 
his  army,  so  lately  strong  and  triumphant,  burnt  their 


106  RETREAT  OF  THE  OOTHS. 

tents,  and  tumultuously  repassed  the  Milvian  bridge. 
They  repassed  not  with  impunity.  Their  thronging 
multitudes,  oppressed  in  a  narrow  passage,  were  driven 
headlong  into  the  Tiber,  by  their  own  fears  and  the 
pursuit  of  the  enemy  ;  and  the  Roman  general,  sally- 
ing from  the  Pincian  gate,  inflicted  a  severe  and  dis- 
graceful wound  on  their  retreat.  So  powerful  was 
this  flying  army,  that  Vitiges  spared  10,000  men,  for 
the  defence  of  the  cities  which  he  was  most  solicitous 
to  preserve,  and  detached  his  nephew  with  an  adequate 
force  for  the  chastisement  of  rebellious  Milan  ;  while 
he  himself,  at  the  head  of  his  chief  force  laid  siege  to 
Rimini.  This  place,  however,  was  so  obstinately  and 
courageously  defended  by  John  the  Sanguinary  that 
the  Goths,  overwhelmed  with  astonishment  and  despair, 
on  seeing  Belisarius  again  advance  against  them, 
abandoned  the  siege,  their  tents,  their  standards,  and 
their  leaders ;  and  Vitiges  flying  almost  alone,  never 
halted  till  he  found  shelter  within  the  walls  and  mo- 
rasses of  Ravenna. 

But  before  Belisarius  had  time  to  establish  fully  the 
Roman  power  in  Italy,  he  was  recalled  in  order  to 
carry  on  the  war  against  Chosroes,  king  of  Persia, 
who,  in  defiance  of  the  treaty  formerly  concluded  in 
532,  entered  the  Roman  dominions  at  the  head  of  a 
powerful  army.  The  same  year,  however,  a  peace 
was  concluded  between  the  two  nations  upon  the  fol- 
lowing conditions:  1.  That  the  Romans  should  within 
two  months,  pay  to  the  Persian  king  5000  pounds 
weight  of  gold,  and  an  annual  pension  of  500.  2.  That 
the  Persians  should  relinquish  all  claim  to  the  fortress 
of  Daras,  and  maintain  a  body  of  troops  to  guard  the 
Caspian  gates,  and  prevent  the  barbarians  from  break- 
ing into  the  empire.  3.  That  upon  payment  of  the 
above-mentioned  sum,  Chosroes  should  immediately 
withdraw  his  troops  from  the  Roman  dominions.  The 
treaty  being  signed,  and  the  stipulated  sum  paid,  Chos- 
roes began  to  march  back  ajain ;  but  by  the  way 
plundered  several  cities  as  if  the  war  had  still  con- 
tinued. Hereupon  Justinian  resolved  to  pursue  the 


DISGRACE   OF   BELISARIUS. 


107 


Chosrots  at  the  head  of  his  Army. 

war  with  the  utmost  vigour;  and  for  that  purpose  des- 
patched Belisarius  into  the  east.  But  soon  after  he 
was  obliged  to  recal  him  in  order  to  oppose  the  Goths 
who  had  gained  great  advantages  in  Italy  after  his  de- 
parture. 

The  Persian  war  was  then  carried  on  with  indif- 
ferent success  till  the  year  558,  when  a  peace  was 
concluded  upon  the  emperor  again  paying  an  immense 
sum  to  the  enemy.  The  same  year  the  Huns,  passing 
the  Danube  in  the  depth  of  winter,  marched  in  two 
bodies  directly  for  Constantinople ;  and  laying  waste 
the  countries  through  which  they  passed,  came,  with- 
out meeting  the  least  opposition,  within  one  hundred 


108  FALL   OF    BEL1SAR1US. 

and  fifty  furlongs  of  the  city.  But  Beli.--arius  march- 
ing out  against  them  with  a  handful  of  men,  put 
them  to  flight;  the  emperor,  however,  to  prevent  them 
from  invading  the  empire  anew,  agreed  to  pay  them 
an  annual  tribute,  upon  their  promising  to  defend  the 
empire  against  all  other  barbarians,  and  to  serve  in  the 
Roman  armies  when  required.  This  was  the  last  ex- 
ploit performed  by  Belisarius,  who  on  his  return  to 
Constantinople  was  disgraced,  stripped  of  all  his  em- 
ployments, and  confined  to  lus  house  on  pretence  of  a 
conspiracy  against  the  emperor.  In  the  year  505  a 
real  conspiracy  was  formed  against  Justinian,  which 
he  happily  escaped,  and  the  conspirators  were  exe- 
cuted ;  but  the  emperor  did  not  long  survive  it,  being 
carried  off  by  a  natural  death  in  568,  in  the  thirty- 
ninth  year  of  his  reign. 

During  the  reign  of  Justinian  the  majesty  of  the 
Roman  empire  seemed  to  revive.  He  recovered  the 
provinces  of  Italy  and  Africa  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
barbarians,  by  whom  they  had  been  held  for  a  number 
of  years  ;  but  after  his  deatli  they  were  soon  lost,  and 
the  empire  tended  fast  to  dissolution.  In  569  Italy 
was  conquered  by  the  Lombards,  who  held  it  for  the 
space  of  two  hundred  years.  Some  amends,  however, 
was  made  for  the  loss  by  the  acquisition  of  Persar- 
menia  ;  the  inhabitants  of  which,  being  persecuted  by 
the  Persians  on  account  of  the  Christian  religion  which 
they  professed,  revolted  to  the  Romans. 

This  produced  a  war  between  the  two  nations,  who 
continued  to  weaken  each  other,  till  at  last  the  Persian 
monarchy  was  utterly  overthrown,  and  that  of  the 
Romans  greatly  reduced  by  the  Saracens.  These  new 
enemies  attacked  the  Romans  in  the  year  632,  and 
pursued  their  conquests  with  incredible  rapidity.  In 
the  space  of  four  years  they  reduced  the  provinces  of 
Egypt,  Syria,  and  Palestine.  In  643  they  were  also 
masters  of  Mesopotamia,  Phoenicia,  Africa,  Cyprus, 
AradUs,  and  Rhodes ;  and  having  defeated  the  Roman 
fleet,  commanded  by  the  emperor  Constans  in  person, 
they  concluded  a  peace  on  condition  of  keeping  the 


THE     LOMBARDS.  109 

vast  extent  of  territory  they  had  seized,  and  paying 
for  it  1000  nummi  a  year. 

An  expedition  against  the  Lombards  was  about  this 
time  undertaken,  but  with  very  little  success,  a  body 
of  20,000  Romans  being  almost  entirely  cut  off  by  one 
of  the  Lombard  generals.  In  671  the  Saracens  ra- 
vaged several  provinces,  made  a  descent  in  Sicily,  took 
and  plundered  the  city  of  Syracuse,  and  over-ran  the 
whole  island,  destroying  every  thing  with  fire  and 
sword.  In  like  manner  they  laid  waste  Cilicia ;  and 
having  passed  the  winter  at  Smyrna,  they  entered 
Thrace  in  the  winter  of  the  year  672,  and  laid  siege 
to  Constantinople  itself.  Here,  however,  they  were 
repulsed  with  great  loss  ;  but  next  spring  they  re- 
newed their  attempt,  in  which  they  met  with  the  same 
bad  success ;  many  of  their  ships  being  burnt  by  the 
sea-fire,  as  it  was  called,  because  it  burnt  under  water  ; 
and  in  their  return  home  their  fleet  was  wrecked  off 
the  Scyllsan  promontory.  At  last  a  peace  was  con- 
cluded for  thirty  years,  on  condition  that  the  Saracens 
should  retain  all  the  provinces  they  had  seized  ;  and 
that  they  should  pay  to  the  emperor  and  his  successors 
3000  pounds  weight  of  gold,  fifty  slaves,  and  as  many 
choice  horses. 


XVII.  THE  EMPIRE  INVADED  BY  THE  BULGARIANS. — 
THEY  ARE  DEFEATED  AND  THEIR  COUNTRY  SUB- 
DUED BY  BASILIUS  II. — THE  SARACENS. 

* 

THE  peace  with  the  Saracens  was  scarcely  con- 
cluded, when  the  empire  was  invaded  by  a  new  enemy, 
who  proved  very  troublesome  for  a  long  time.  These 
were  the  Bulgarians ;  who  breaking  into  Thrace,  de- 
feated the  Roman  army  sent  against  them,  and  ravaged 
the  country  far  and  wide.  The  emperor  consented  to 
pay  them  an  annual  pension,  rather  than  continue  a 
10 


110  THE   BULGARIANS. 

doubtful  war ;  and  allowed  them  to  settle  in  Lower 
Moesia,  which  from  them  was  afterwards  called  Bul- 
garia. In  637,  they  were  attacked  by  Justinian  II. 
who  entered  their  country  without  provocation,  or 
regarding  the  treaties  formerly  concluded  with  them. 
But  they  falling  suddenly  upon  him,  drove  him  out  of 
their  country,  and  obliged  him  to  restore  the  towns 
and  captives  he  had  taken. 

In  697,  this  emperor  was  deposed  ;  and  in  his  exile 
fled  to  Trebelis  king  of  the  Bulgarians,  by  whom  he 
was  kindly  entertained,  and  by  whose  means  he  was 
restored  to  his  throne  ;  but  soon  forgetting  this  favour, 
he  invaded  the  country  of  the  Bulgarians,  with  a 
design  to  wrest  from  them  those  provinces  which  he 
had  yielded  to  them.  He  was  attended  in  this  expe- 
dition by  no  better  success  than  his  ingratitude  de- 
served, his  army  being  utterly  defeated,  and  he  himself, 
obliged  to  make  his  escape  in  a  light  vessel  to  Con- 
stantinople. 

The  Bulgarians  continued  their  inroads  and  ravages 
at  different  times,  generally  defeated  the  Romans  who 
ventured  to  oppose  them,  till  the  year  eight  hundred, 
the  seventh  of  the  reign  of  Nicephorus,  when  they 
surprised  the  city  of  Sardica  in  Moesia,  and  put  the 
whole  garrison,  consisting  of  6000  men,  to  the  sword. 
The  emperor  marched  against  them  with  a  considera- 
ble army :  but  the  enemy  retired  at  his  approach  ;  and 
he,  instead  of  pursuing  them,  returned  to  Constantino- 
ple. Two  years  after,  he  entered  Bulgaria  at  the 
head  of  a  powerful  army,  destroying  every  thing  with 
fire  and  sword.  The  king  offered  to  conclude  a  peace 
with  him  upon  honourable  terms ;  but  Nicephorus,  re- 
jecting his  proposals,  continued  to  waste  the  country, 
destroying  the  cities,  and  putting  all  the  inhabitants, 
without  distinction  of  sex  or  age,  to  the  sword. 

The  king  was  so  much  affected  with  these  cruelties 
which  were  exercised  on  his  subjects,  that  he  sent  a 
second  embassy  to  Nicephorus,  offering  to  conclude  a 
peace  with  him  upon  any  terms,  provided  he  would 
quit  his  country.  But  Nicephorus  dismissing  the 


VICTORY   OF    URANUS.  Ill 

ambassadors  with  scorn,  the  Bulgarian  monarch  at- 
tacked unexpectedly  the  Roman  camp,  forced  it,  arid 
cut  off  almost  the  whole  army,  with  the  emperor  him- 
self, and  a  great  number  of  patricians.  His  successor 
Michael  likewise  engaged  in  a  war  with  the  Bulgari- 
ans ;  but  being  utterly  defeated,  he  was  so  grieved 
that  he  resigned  the  empire.  Alter  this  the  Bulgarians 
continued  to  be  very  formidable  enemies  to  the  empire, 
till  the  year  979,  when  they  were  attacked  by  Ba- 
eilius  II. 

The  Bulgarians  were  at  that  time  governed  by  a 
king  named  SatJiucl ;  who  having  ravaged  the  Roman 
territories,  as  was  the  common  practice  of  his  nation, 
Basilius  sent  against  him  one  Nicephorus  Uranus  at 
the  head  of  a  powerful  army.  Uranus,  leaving  his 
baggage  at  Larissa,  reached  by  long  marches  the 
Sperchius,  and  encamped  with  his  whole  army  over 
against  the  enemy,  who  lay  on  the  opposite  bank.  As 
the  river  was  greatly  swelled  with  the  heavy  rains 
that  had  lately  fallen,  Samuel,  not  imagining  the  Ro- 
mans would  attempt  to  pass  it,  suffered  his  troops  to 
roam  in  large  parties  about  the  country  in  quest  of 
booty.  But  Uranus  having  at  length  found  out  a  place 
where  the  river  was  fordable,  passed  it  in  the  dead  of 
the  night  without  being  perceived. 

He  then  fell  upon  tbe.  Bulgarians  who  were  left  in 
the  camp,  and  lay  for  the  most  part  asleep  ;  cut  great 
numbers  of  them  in  pieces;  took  a  great  number  of 
prisoner?,  with  all  their  baggage;  and  made  himself 
master  of  their  camp.  Samuel  and  his  son  were  dan- 
gerously wounded ;  and  would  have  been  taken,  had 
they  not  all  that  day  concealed  themselves  among  the 
dead.  The  next  night  they  stole  away  to  the  moun- 
tains of  ^Etola,  and  from  thence  made  their  escape 
into  Bulgaria.  The  following  year  the  emperor  en- 
tered Bulgaria  at  the  head  of  a  numerous  and  well- 
disciplined  army  ;  defeated  Samuel  in  a  pitched  battle, 
and  took  several  strong  cities. 

The  emperor  himself,  however,  at  last,  narrowly 
escaped  being  cut  off  with  his  whole  army ;  being  un- 


112  DEATH   OF   SAMUEL. 

expectedly  attacked  by  the  Bulgarians  in  a  narrow 
pass.  From  this  danger  he  was  relieved  by  the  arrival 
of  Nicephorus  Xiphias,  governor  of  Phillipopolis,  with  a 
considerable  body  of  troops;  who  falling  upon  the 
enemy's  rear,  put  them  to  flight.  Basiluis  pursued 
them  close ;  and  having  taken  an  incredible  number 
of  captives,  caused  their  eyes  to  be  pulled  out,  leaving 
to  every  hundred  a  guide  with  one  eye,  that  he  might 
conduct  them  to  Samuel. 

This  shocking  spectacle  so  affected  the  unhappy 
king,  that  he  fell  into  a  deep  swoon,  and  died  two  days 
after.  The  Roman  emperor  pursued  his  conquests, 
and  in  the  space  of  two  years  made  himself  master  of 
most  of  the  enemy's  strong  holds.  He  defeated  also 
the  successor  of  Samuel  in  several  engagements  ;  and 
having  at  last  killed  him  in  battle,  the  Bulgarians 
submitted  themselves  without  reserve.  The  vast 
treasures  of  their  princes  were  by  Basilius  distributed 
among  his  soldiers  by  way  of  donative.  Soon  atler, 
the  widow  of  the  late  king,  with  her  six  daughters  and 
three  of  her  sons,  surrendered  themselves  to  the  Ro- 
man emperor,  by  whom  they  were  received  with  the 
utmost  civility  and  respect.  This  obliging  behaviour 
encouraged  the  three  other  sons  of  the  late  king,  and 
most  of  the  princes  of  the  blood,  who  had  taken  shelter 
in  the  mountains,  to  submit,  and  throw  themselves  on 
the  emperor's  mercy. 

Ibatzes,  however,  a  person  nearly  allied  to  the  royal 
family,  who  had  distinguished  himself  in  a  very  emi- 
nent manner  during  the  whole  course  of  the  war, 
refused  to  submit,  and  fled  to  a  steep  and  craggy  moun- 
tain, with  a  design  to  defend  himself  there  to  the  last 
extremity.  Basilius  endeavoured  to  cause  him-  submit 
by  fair  means,  but  he  equally  despised  both  threats  and 
promises.  At  last  Eustathius  Diiphnomelus,  whom 
Basilius  had  lately  appointed  governor  of  Achridus, 
the  chief  city  of  Bulgaria,  undertook  to  secure  him 
by  a  most  desperate  and  improbable  scheme. 

Without  communicating  his  design  to  any,  he  re- 
paired, with  two  persons  in'  whom  he  could  confide,  to 


EXPLOIT   OF   DAPHXOMELUS.  113 

the  mountain  on  which  Ibatzes  had  fortified  himself. 
He  hoped  to  pass  undiscovered  among  the  many 
strangers  who  flocked  thither  to  celebrate  the  ap- 
proaching feast  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  tor  whom  Ibatzes 
had  a  particular  veneration.  In  this  he  found  himself 
mistaken  ;  for  he  was  known  by  the  guards,  and  carried 
before  the  prince.  To- him  he  pretenfled  to  have  some- 
thing of  importance  to  communicate  ;  but  as  soon  as 
Ibatzes  had  retired  with  him  into  a  remote  place, 
Daphnomelus  threw  himself  suddenly  upon  him,  and 
with  the  assistance  of  the  two  men  whom  he  had 
brought  with  him,  pulled  out  both  his  eyes,  and  got 
safe  to  an  abandoned  castle  on  the  top  of  the  hill. 

Here  they  were  immediately  surrounded  by  'the 
ttoops  of  Ibatzes ;  but  Daphnomelus  exhorting  them 
now  to  submit  to  the  emperor,  by  whom  he  assured 
them  they  would  be  well  received,  they  congratulated 
Daphnomelus  on  his  success,  and  suffered  him  to  con- 
duct the  unhappy  Ibatzes  a  prisoner  to  Basiling.  The 
emperor  was  no  less  surprised  than  pleased  at  the 
success  of  this  bold  attempt;  and  rewarded  Daphno- 
melus with  the  government  of  Dyrrhachium,  and  all 
the  rich  moveables  of  his  prisoner.  After  this,  having 
accomplished  the  entire  reduction  of  Bulgaria,  he  re- 
turned to  Constantinople  with  an  incredible  number  of 
captives ;  where  he  was  received  by  the  senate  and 
people  with  all  possible  demonstrations  of  joy. 

All  this  time  the  Saracens  had  at  intervals  invaded 
the  Roman  dominions,  and  even  attempted  to  make 
themselves  masters  of  Constantinople.  Their  internal 
divisions,  however,  rendered  them  now  much  less 
formidable  enemies  than  they  had  formerly  been;  so 
that  some  provinces  were  even  recovered  for  a  time 
out  of  their  hands;  though  the  weak  and  distracted 
state  of  the  empire  rendered  it  impossible  to  preserve 
such  conquests. 

10  « 


XVIII.  THE  TURKS. — THEY  INVYDE  THE  EMPIRE. — 
TANGROLII-IX. — KUDOCIA. — THE  TURKS  DEFEATED 
BY  ROMANUS  DIOGENES. — AXAN. — -TiiE  EMPEROR 

TAKEN       FRISOXEH. HlS      I)EATH. TllE      K.MPIKE 

AGAIN     INVADED     BV     TIIE      Tl'RliS. ALEXIUS      Co.M- 

M:NI.S. — PI:\CE*\VITH  THE  'i'i 

IN  1041,  the  empire  was  invaded   by  an  enemy,  not 

owertul  at  that  time  indeed,  but  uho  by  di 
gathered  strength  sufficient  to  overthrow  butli  the  Ro- 
man and  Saracen  empires.     These   were  the  Turks; 
who,  having  quitted   their  ancient  hub;t:itior.s.  in  the 
of    Mount    Caucasus,   and    passed   the 
r.'iit.s,  Fettled   in  Armenia   Major,  about  the 
year   64.4.     There   they  continued   an   unknown  and 
despicable  people,  till  the  intestine  wars  of  the  Suracens 
pave  them  an  opportunity  of  a«r?raiv:ixinif  themselves. 
About  the  year  1080.  lirael 

Sultan  of  Persia,  not  rinding  himself  a  match  for  Pisa- 
ris  tiultan  of  Babylon,  with  whom  he  was  at  war,  had 
recourse  to  the  Turks,  who  sent  him  3UOO  men  under 
the  command  of  one  T&ngrolipix,  a  leadinir  man  among 
them.  By  their  assistance  Mohammed  defeated  his  ad- 
versary ;  but  when  the  Turks  desired  leave  to  return 
home,  he  refused  to  part  with  them.  Upon  this  they 
withdrew  without  his  consent  to  a  neighbourii: 
pert;  and  being  there  joined  by  several  discontented 
me,  began  to  make  frequent  inroads  into  the 
sultan's  territories.  Against  them  Mohammed  imme- 
diately despatched  an  army  of  x!0,000  men  ;  who,  being 
surprised  in  the  night,  were  utterly  defeated  by  Tan- 
grolipix. 

The  fame  of  this  victory  drew  multitudes  to  him 
from  all  parts ;  so  that  in  a  short  time  Tangrolipix 
saw  himself  at  the  head  of  50,000  men.  Upon  this 
Mohammed  marched  against  them  in  person,  but  was 
thrown  from  his  horse  in  the  beginning  of  the  engage- 
ment, and  killed  by  the  fall;  upon  which  his  men 
threw  down  their  arms,  and  submitted  to  Tanirrolipix. 

(IH) 


OPERATIONS    OF    THE    TURKS.  115 

After  this  victory  the  Turkish  general  made  war 
upon  the  Sultan  of  Babylon  ;  whom  he  at  length  slew, 
and  annexed  his  dominions  to  his  own.  He  tlien  sent 
his  nephew,  named  Cutlu-Moses,  against  the  Arabians ; 
but  by  them  he  was  defeated,  and  forced  to  fly  to- 
\\ards  Media.  Through  this  province  he  was  denied 
a  passage  by  Stephen  the  Roman  governor;  upon  which 
Cutlu- .Moses  was  obliged  to  force  a  passage  by  en- 
countering the  Roman  army.  These  he  put  to  flight, 
took  the  governor  himself  prisoner,  and  without  any 
further  opposition  reached  the  confines  of  Persia, 
where  he  sold  Stephen  for  a  slave.  Returning  from 
thence  to  Tamjrolipix,  he  e:  ;inner 

he  could,  his  defeat  by  the  Arabians  :  but  at  the  same 
time  acquainted  him  witii  h  ver  the  Romans 

in  Medja,  encouraging  him  to  invade  that  fertile  coun- 
try, which  he  said  miiiht  be  easily  conquered,  as  it  was 
inhabited  by  none  but  women,  meaning  the  Romans. 

At  that  time  Tangrolipix  did  not  hearken  to  his 
advice,  but  marched  against  the  Arabians  at  the  head 
of  a  numerous  army.  He  was,  however,  attended 
with  no  better  success  than  his  nephew  hud  been ;  and 
therefore  began  to  reflect  on  what  he  had  told  him. 
Soon  after  he  sent  Asan  his  brother's  son  with  an  army 
of  20,000  men  to  reduce  Media.  Pursuant  to  his 
orders,  the  young  prince  entered  that  country,  and 
committed  everywhere  dreadful  ravages;  but  being 
in  the  end  drawn  into  an  ambush  by  the  Roman  gen- 
erals, he  was  cut  off"  with  his  whole  army.  Tangro- 
lipix, no  way  discouraged  by  this  misfortune,  sent  a 
new  army  into  Media  near  100,000  strong;  who  after 
having-  ravaged  the  country  without  opposition,  laid 
siege  to  Artza  a  place  of  great  trade,  and  therefore 
reckoned  the  most  wealthy  in  those  parts.  \ot  being 
able  to  reduce  it  by  any  other  means,  they  set  it  on 
fire  ;  and  thus  in  a  short  time  it  was  utterly  destroyed  ; 
the  buildings  being  reduced  to  ashes,  and  150,000  of 
the  inhabitants  perishing  either  by  the  flames  or  the 
eword. 

After  this,  Abraham  Ilalim,  half  brother  to  Tangro- 


116   CONTEST    BETWEEN   THE    Tl-RKS    AND  ROMANS. 


Tangrolipix  in  Iberia. 

lipix,  hearing  that  the  Romans,  re-inforcecl  with  a  body 
of  troops  under  the  command  of  Liparile.s  trovernor  of 
Ihrria,  liad  taken  the  field,  marched  aiiaitu-t  them,  and 
offered  them  battle  ;  which  they  not  declining,  the 
two  armies  engaged  with  incredible  fury.  The  victory 
continued  IOMLT  doubtful  ;  hut  at  length  inclined  to  the 
Romans;  who  nevertheless  did  not  think  proper  to 
pursue  the  fugitives,  as  their  general  Liparites  was 
taken  prisoner. 


DEFEAT   OF    ALCAN.  117 

The  emperor,  greatly  concerned  for  the  captivity  of 
Liparites,  dispatched  ambassadors  with  rich  presents, 
and  a  large  sum  of  money  to  redeem  him,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  conclude  an  alliance  with  Tangrolipix. 
The  sultan  received  the  presents ;  hut  generously  re- 
turned them,  together  with  the  money,  to  Liparites, 
whom  he  set  at  liberty  without  any  ransom  ;  only  re- 
quiring him,  at  his  departure,  never  more  to  bear  arms 
against  the  Turks.  Not  long  after,  Tanirrolipix  sent 
a  person  of  ^reat  authority  among  the  Turks,  with  the 
character  of  ambassador,  to  Constantinople:  who  hav- 
ing arrogantly  exhorted  the  emperor  to  submit  to  his 
master,  and  acknowledge  himself  his  tributary,  was 
ignominiously  driven  out  of  the  city. 

Tangrolipix,  highly  affronted  at  the  reception  his 
ambassador  had  met  with,  entered  Iberia,  while  the 
emperor  Constantine  Monomachus  was  fuga^'d  in  a 
war  with  the  Patzinacee,  a  Scythian  nation.  Having 
ravaged  that  country,  lie  returned  from  thence  to 
;.  and  laid  siege  to  Mautzichii-rta,  a  place  de- 
fended by  a  numerous  garrison,  and  fortified  with  a 
triple  wall  and  deep  ditches.  However,  as  it  was 
situated  in  an  open  plain  country,  lie  hoped  to  IK) 
master  of  it  in  a  short  tune.  But  finding  the  besieged 
determined  to  defend  themselves  to  the  last  extremity, 
he  resolved  to  raise  the  siege,  after  he  had  continued 
it  thirty  days.  One  of  his  oificers,  however,  named 
Alccnt,  prevailed  on  him  to  continue  it  but  one  day 
longer,  and  to  commit  the  management  of  the  attacks 
to  him. 

This  being  granted,  Alcan  disposed  his  men  with 
such  skill,  and  so  encouraged  them  by  his  example, 
that,  notwithstanding-  the  vigorous  opposition  they  met 
with,  the  place  would  have  probably  been  taken,  had 
not  Alcan  been  slain  as  he  was  mounting  the  wall. 
The  besieged,  knowing  him  by  the  richness  of  his 
armour,  drew  him  by  the  hair  into  the  city,  and  cutting 
off  his  head  threw  it  over  the  wall  among  the  e: 
which  so  disheartened  them,  that  they  gave  over  the 
assault  and  retired. 


118  DEATH    OF    CONSTANTINE. 

The  next  spring  Tangrolipix  returned,  and  ravaged 
Iberia  with  the  utmost  cruelty,  sparing  neither  sex  nor 
age.  But  on  the  approach  of  the  Roman  army  he 
retired  to  Tauris,  leaving  30,000  men  behind  him  to 
infest  the  frontiers  of  the  empire.  This  they  did  with 
great  success,  the  borders  being,  through  the.  avarice 
of  Monornachus,  unguarded.  Till  the  time  of  this  em- 
peror, the  provinces  bordering  on  the  countries  of  the 
barbarians  had  maintained,  at  their  own  charge,  forces 
to  defend  them  ;  and  were  on  that  account  exempted 
from  paying  tribute :  but  as  Monomachus  exacted 
from  them  the  same  sums  that  \vt;re  paid  by  other?, 
they  were  no  longer  in  a  condition  to  defend  them- 
eelves. 

In  1003  died  the  emperor  Constantino  Ducas,  having 
ie  empire  to  his  three  sons,  Michael,  Andronicus, 
and  Constantino :  but  as  they  were  all  very  young,  he 
appointed  the  empress  Eurlocia  regent  during  their 
minority,  after  having  required  of  her  an  oath  never 
to  marry  ;  which  oath  was  with  great  solemnity  lodged 
in  the  hands  of  the  patriarch.  He  likewise  obliged 
the  senators  solemnly  to  swear  that  they  would  ac- 
knowledge none  for  their  sovereign  but  his  three  sons. 
:>ner,  however,  was  he  dead,  than  the  Turks, 
hearing  that  the  empire  was  governed  by  a  woman, 
broke  into  Mesopotamia.,  Cilicia,  and  Cappadocia,  de- 
stroying all  with  fire  and  sword. 

The  empress  was  no  way  in  a  condition  to  oppose 
them,  the  greater  part  of  the  army  having  been  dis- 
banded in  her  husband's  life-time,  and  the  troops  that 
were  still  on  foot  being  undisciplined,  and  altogether 
unfit  for  service.  The  concern  which  this  gave  the 
empress  was  aggravated  bytthe  seditious  speeches  of  a 
discontented  party  at  home,  who  repeated  on  all  occa- 
sions that  the  present  state  of  affairs  required  a  man 
of  courage  and  address  at  the  helm,  instead  of  a  weak 
and  helpless  woman;  and  as  they  imagined  the  em- 
press would  never  think  of  marrying,  in  consequence 
of  the  oath  she  had  taken,  they  hoped  by  those  speeches 
to  induce  the  people  to  revolt,  and  choose  a  new  em- 


POLICY    OF    EIDOCIA.  119 

peror.  This  Eudocia  was  aware  of;  and  therefore 
determined  to  prevent  the  evils  that  threatened  her- 
self and  her  fumilv,  by  marrying  some  person  of  merit 
who  was  capable  of  defeating  her  enemies  both  at 
home  and  abroad. 

ne  Romamis  Diogenes,  a  person  of  a 
most  beautiful  aspect,  extraordinary  parts,  and  illustri- 
ous birth,  being  accused  of  aspiring  to  the  empire,  tried 
and  convicted,  was  brought  forth  to  receive  sentence 
of  death.  But  the  empress,  touched  with  com]' 
at  his  appearance.  i^'ii'Iy  upbraided  him  with  his  ambi- 
tion, set  him  at  liberty,  and  soon  after  appointed  him 
commander  in  chief  of  all  her  forces.  In  this  station 
he  acquitted  himself  so  well,  that  the  empre- 
solved  to  marry  him  if  she  could  but  recover  the  writ- 
ing, in  which  her  oath  was  contained,  out  of  the  hands 
of  the  patriarch.  In  order  to  this,  she  applied  to  a 
favourite  eunuch  ;  who,  going  to  the  patriarch,  told  him, 
that  the  empress  was  so  taken  with  his  nephew,  named 
Bardas,  that  she  was  determined  to  marry  and  raise 
him  to  the  empire,  provided  the  patriarch  absolved  her 
from  the  oath  she  had  taken,  and  convinced  the  senate 
of  the  lawfulness  of  her  marriage. 

The  patriarch,  dazzled  with  the  prospect  of  his  ne- 
phew's promotion,  readily  undertook  to  perform  both. 
He  first  obtained  the  consent  of  the  senate  by  represent- 
ing to  them  the  dangerous  state  of  the  empire,  and  ex- 
claiming against  the  rash  oath  which  the  jealousy  of 
the  late  emperor  had  extorted  from  the  empress.  He 
then  publicly  discharged  her  from  it:  restored  the 
writing  to  her ;  and  exhorted  her  to  marry  some  de- 
serving object,  who,  being  entrusted  with  an  absolute 
authority,  might  be  capable  of  defending  the  empire. 
The  empress,  thus  discharged  from  her  oath,  married  a 
few  days  after  Romanus  Diogenes ;  who  was  there- 
upon, proclaimed  emperor,  to  the  great  disappointment 
of  the  patriarch. 

As  the  new  emperor  was  a  man  of  great  activity 
and  experience  in  war,  he  no  sooner  saw  himself  vested 
with  the  sovereign  power,  than  he  took  upon  him  the 


120  ACTS    OF    ROMANUS. 

command  of  the  army,  and  passed  over  into  Asia  with 
the  few  forces  he  could  assemble,  recruiting  and 
inuring  them  on  Ins  march  to  military  discipline,  which 
had  been  utterly  neglected  in  the  preceding  reigns. 
On  his  arrival  in  this  continent,  he  was  informed  that 
the  Turks  had  surprised  and  plundered  the  city  of 
Neocastarea,  and  were  retiring  with  their  booty.  On 
this  news  he  hastened  after  them  at  the  head  of  a 
chosen. body  of  light-armed  troops,  and  came  up  with 
them  on  the  third  day.  As  the  Turks  were  marching 
in  disorder,  without  the  least  apprehension  of  an  enemy, 
Romanus  cut  great  numbers  of  them  in  pieces,  mid 
easily. recovered  the  booty  ;  after  which  he  pursued  his 
march  to  Aleppo,  which  he  re-took  from  them,  together 
with  Hieropolis,  where  he  built  a  strong  castle. 

As  he  was  returning  to  join  the  forces  he  had  left 
behind  him,  he  was  met  by  a  numerous  body  of  Turks, 
who  attempted  to  cut  off  his  retreat.  At  first,  he  pre- 
tended to  decline  an  engagement  through  fear ;  but 
attacked  them  afterwards  with  such  vigour  when  they 
least  expected  it,  that  he  put  them  to  flight  at  the  first 
onset,  and  might  have  gained  a  complete  victory  had 
he  thought  proper  to  pursue  them.  After  this,  several 
towns  submitted  to  him ;  but  the  season  being  now 
far  spent,  the  emperor  returned  to  Constantinople. 

The  following  year,  he  passed  over  into  Asia  early 
in  the  spring ;  and  being  informed  that  the  Turks  had 
sacked  the  rich  city  of  Iconium,  besides  gaining  other 
considerable  advantages,  he  marched  in  person  against 
them.  But  the  Turks,  not  thinking  it  advisable  to  wait 
his  coming,  retired  in  great  haste.  The  Armenians, 
however,  encouraged  by  the  approach  of  the  emperor's 
army,  fell  upon  the  enemy  in  the  plains  of  Tarsus,  put 
them  to  flight,  and  stripped  them  both  of  their  baggage 
and  the  booty  they  had  taken. 

The  spring  following,  the  emperor  once  more  entered 
Asia  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  army  which  he  had 
raised,  and  with  incredible  pains  disciplined  during  the 
winter.  When  the  two  armies  drew  near  to  each 
other,  Axan,  the  Turkish  Sultan,  and  son  of  the  famous 


DEPOSITION    OF    EUDOCIA.  121 

Tangrolipix,  sent  proposals  to  Romanus,  for  a  lasting 
and  honourable  peace.  These  were  imprudently  re- 
jected, and  a  desperate  engagement  ensued,  when,  in 
spite  of  the  utmost  efforts  of  the  emperor,  his  army 
was  routed,  and  he  himself  wounded  and  taken  pri- 
soner. When  this  news  was  brought  to  Axan,  he 
could  scarcely  believe  it;  but  being  convinced  by  the 
appearance  of  the  royal  captive  in  his  presence,  he 
tenderly  embraced  him,  and  addressed  him  in  affec- 
tionate manner:  "Grieve  not,"  said  he,  "most  noble 
emperor,  at  your  misfortune  ;  for  such  is  the  chance 
of  war,  sometimes  overwhelming  one,  and  sometimes 
another:  you  shall  have  no  occasion  to  complain  of 
your  captivity;  fur  I  will  not  use  you  as  my  prisoner, 
but  as  an  emperor.'' 

The  Turk  was  as£ood  as  his  word.  He  lodged  the 
emperor  in  a  royal  pavilion  ;  assigned  him  attendants, 
with  an  equipage  suitable  to  his  quality;  and  dis- 
charged such  prisoners  as  he  desired.  After  he  had 
for  some  days  entertained  his  royal  captive  with  ex- 
traordinary magnificence,  a  perpetual  peace  was  con- 
cluded betwixt  them,  and  the  emperor  was  dismissed 
with  the  greatest  marks  of  honour  imaginable.  He  then 
set  out  with  the  Turkish  ambassador  for  Constantino- 
ple, where  the  peace  was  to  be  ratified  ;  but  by  the 
way  he  was  informed  that  Eudocia  had  been  driven 
from  the  throne  by  John  the  brother  of  Constantine 
Ducas,  and  Psellus  a  leading  man  in  the  senate,  who 
had  confined  her  to  a  monastery,  and  proclaimed  her 
eldest  son,  ^Michael  Ducas,  emperor. 

On  this  intelligence,  Romanus  retired  to  a  strong 
castle  near  Theodosiopolis,  where  he  hoped  in  a  short 
time  to  be  joined  by  great  numbers  of  his  friends  and 
adherents.  But  in  the  mean  time  John,  who  had 
taken  upon  him  to  act  as  guardian  to  the  younj  prince, 
dispatched  Andronictis  with  a  considerable  army  against 
him.  Andronicus  having  easily  defeated  the  small 
army  which  Romanus  had  with  him,  obliged  him  to  fly 
to  Adana  a  city  in  Cilicia,  where  he  was  closely  be- 
sieged, and  at  last  obliged  to  surrender.  Andronicus 
11 


1?2  INVASION     BY     AXAN. 

carried  his  prisoner  into  Phrygia,  where  he  foil  dan- 
gerouMy  ill,  being,  as  was  suspected,  secretly  poi.-'oned. 
But  the  poison  being  too  slow  in  its  operation,  John 
ordered  his  eyes  to  be  put  out;  which  was  done  with 
such  cruelty  that  he  died  soon  after,  in  the  year  1067, 
having  reigned  three  years  and  eight  months. 

Axan  was  no  sooner  informed  of  the  tragical  end  of 
his  friend  and  ally,  than  he  resolved  to  invade  the 
empire  anew ;  and  that  not  with  a  design  only  to  plun- 
der as  formerly,  but  to  conquer,  and  keep  what  he  had 
once  conquered.  The  emperor  dispatched  against 
him  Isaac  Comnenus,  with  a  considerable  army  ;  but 
he  was  utterly  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  Axan. 
Another  army  was  quickly  sent  off  under  the  com- 
mand of  John  Ducas  the  emperor's  uncle.  He  gained 
at  first  some  advantages,  and  would  probably  have  put 
a  stop  to  their  conquests,  had  not  one  Ruselius,  or 
Urselius,  revolted  with  the  troops  he  had  under  his 
command,  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  emperor, 
and  reduced  several  cities  in  Phrygia  and  Cappadocia. 
Against  him  John  marched  with  nil  his  forces,  suf- 
fering the  Turks  in  the  meantime  to  pursue  their  con- 
quests ;  but  coming  to  an  engagement  with  the  rebels, 
his  army  was  entirely  defeated,  and  himself  taken  pri- 
soner. 

Notwithstanding  this  yictory,  Ruselius  was  so  much 
alarmed  at  the  progress  of  the  Turks,  that  he  not  only 
released  his  prisoner,  but  joined  with  him  against  the 
common  enemy,  by  whom  they  were  both  defeated  and 
taken  prisoners.  Axan,  however,  was  for  some  time 
prevented  from  pursuing  his  conquests  by  Cutlu-Moses, 
nephew  to  the  late  Tangrolipix.  He  had  revolted 
against  his  uncle  ;  but  being  defeated  by  him  in  a 
pitched  battle,  had  taken  refuge  in  Arabia,  whence  he 
now  returned  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  army,  in 
order  to  dispute  the  sovereignty  with  Axan.  But 
while  the  two  armies  were  preparing  to  engage,  the 
Kalif  of  Babylon,  who  was  still  looked  upon  as  the  suc- 
cessor of  the  great  prophet,  interposed  his  authority. 
He  represented  the  dangers  of  their  intestine  dissen- 


SUCCESS   OF   THE   TIRKS.  123 

eions;  and  by  his  mediation,  an  agreement  was  at  last 
concluded,  on  condition  that  Axau  should  enjoy  i, 
turbed  the  monarchy  lately  left  him  by  his  iutlier,  and 
Cutlu-Moses  should  possess  such  provinces  of  the  Ro- 
man empire  as  he  or  his  sons  should  in  process  of  time 
conquer. 

After  this  agreement,  both  the  Turkish  princes 
turned  their  forces  against  the  empire  ;  and  before  the 
year  1077,  made  themselves  masters  of  all  Media, 
Lycaonia,  Cappadocia,  and  Bithynia,  fixing  the  capital 
city  of  their  empire  at  Nice  in  the  latter  province. 
During  all  this  time,  the  emperors  of  Constantinople, 
as  well  as  their  subjects,  seemed  to  be  in  a  manner 
infatuated.  No  notice  was  taken  of  the  great  pro- 
gress made  by  these  barbarians.  The  generals  were 
ambitious  only  of  seizing  the  tottering  empire,  which 
eeemed  ready  to  fall  a  prey  to  the  Turks  ;  and,  alter 
it  was  obtained,  spent  their  time  in  oppressing  their 
subjects,  rather  than  in  making  any  attempts  to  re- 
pulse the  enemy. 

At  last  Alexius  Comnenus,  having  wrested  the  em- 
pire from  Nicephorus  Botoniates,  in  1077,  began  to 
prepare  for  opposing  so  formidable  an  enemy.  But 
before  he  set  out,  as  his  soldiers  had  committed  great 
outrages  on  his  accession  to  the  empire,  he  resolved 
to  make  confession  of  his  sins,  and  do  open  penance 
for  those  he  had  suffered  his  army  to  commit.  Ac- 
cordingly he  appeared  in  the  attire  of  a  penitent  be- 
fore the  patriarch  and  several  other  ecclesiastics,  ac- 
knowledged himself  guilty  of  the  many  disorders  that 
had  been  committed  by  his  soldiers,  and  begged  of  the 
patriarch  to  impose  upon  him  a  penance  suitable  to  the 
greatness  of  his  crimes. 

The  penance  enjoined  him  and  his  adherents  by  the 
patriarch  was  to  fast,  lie  upon  the  ground,  and  practise 
several  other  austerities,  for  the  space  of  forty  days. 
This  command  was  religiously  obeyed,  and  the  emperor 
then  began  to  prepare  for  war  with  so  much  vigour, 
that  Solyman,  the  Turkish  sultan,  son  and  successor 
to  Cultu-Moses,  despatched  ambassadors  to  Alexius 


124  ORIGIN  OF  GUI8CARD. 

with  proposals  of  peace.  These  were  at  first  rejected  ; 
but  the  emperor  was  at  last  glad  to  accept  them  on 
certain  advice,  that  Robert  Guiscard,  Duke  of  Puglia 
and  Calabria,  was  making  great  preparations  against 
him  in  the  West 


XIX.  GuiSCARD's  EXPEDITION  AGAINST  THE  EMPEROR. 
— THE  WAR  ENDED  BY  HIS  DEATH. — THE  SCY- 
THIAN WAR. — THE  HOLY  WAR. — JOHN  THE  HAND- 
SOME. —  MANUEL. —  ANDRONICUS.  —  ALKXII  s  II.  — 
ANDRONICUS  EMPEROR. — ISAAC  II. — (JUEAT  FIRE  AT 
CONSTANTINOPLE. — JOHN  Drc\s. — Moiu/ot TLE.  — 
CONSTANTINOPLE  TAKEN  AND  PLUNDERED  BY  THE 
LATINS. 

ROBERT  GUISCARD  was  the  fourth  son  of  a  noble 
of  the  middle  order,  of  Hauteville,  in  Normandy.  A 
narrow  patrimony,  and  the  mischiefs  of  poverty  and 
discord,  tempted  him  to  seek  in  foreign  wars  a  more 
glorious  inheritance  than  that  of  the  family.  He  was 
a  man  of  a  lofty  stature  and  imposing1  presence,  fit  to 
impress  obedience  and  terror  in  the  midst  of  the  tumult 
of  battle  ;  of  great  wisdom,  and  boundless  ambition. 
In  the  pursuit  of  greatness,  he  was  never  arrested  by 
the  scruples  of  justice,  and  seldom  moved  by  the 
feelings  of  humanity.  With  but  five  followers  on 
horse  bick,  and  thirty  on  foot,  Robert  departe  1  from 
Normandy,  and  commenced  a  kind  of  predatory  \v;ir 
in  Calabria.  His  forces  increasing  by  the  arrival 
of  Normans  and  of  numerous  bands  of  mercenaries, 
with  which  the  country  was  infested,  lie  soon  con- 
quered Apulia  and  Calabria,  Salerno,  Amalphi  and 
Beneventum  ;  which  correspond  with  the  limits  of 
the  kinrrdom  of  Naples.  For  some  service  rendered 
to  the  Roman  pontiff,  Nicholas  II.  conferred  on  him 
the  title  of  duke,  and  Robert  then  styled  himself, 


HIS    PROGRESS.  125 

"  By  the  grace  of  God  and  St.  Peter,  duke  of  Apulia, 
Calabria,  and  hereafter  of  Sicily."  The  possession  of 
these  places,  however,  was  inadequate  to  satisfy  his 
ambition,  and  he  resolved  to  seize  the  first  opportunity 
of  invading  the  Roman  empire  of  the  east. 

One  of  the  daughters  of  Guiscard  was  betrothed 
t)  the  son  and  heir  of  the  emperor  Michael;  but  the 
throne  of  Constantinople  was  shaken  by  a  revolu- 
tion, and  the  imperial  family  of  Ducas  was  imprisoned 
in  the  palace  or  the  cloister,  by  Nicephorus  Botoniates. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  usurper's  reign,  it  is  said  that 
Michael  escaping  from  the  monastery  in  which  he  had 
been  confined,  fled  into  the  west,  where  he  was  re- 
ceived by  Robert,  who  was  easily  prevailed  upon  to 
favour  his  cause. 

For  this  purpose,  Robert  made  great  preparations ; 
and  these  were  continued  even  after  the  deposition  of 
Botoniates.  He  sailed  with  all  his  forces  from  Brun- 
dusium;  and  landing  at  Buthrotum  in  Epirus,  made 
himself  master  of  that  place,  while  his  son  Bohemond, 
with  part  of  the  army,  reduced  Aulon,  a  celebrated 
port  and  city  in  the  country  now  called  Albania. 
From  thence  they  advanced  to  Durazzo,  which  they 
invested  both  by  sea  and  land ;  but  met  with  a  most 
vigorous  opposition  from  George  Palroologus,  whom 
the  emperor  had  intrusted  with  the  defence  of  that  im- 
portant place. 

In  spite  of  the  utmost  efforts  of  the  enemy,  this 
commander  held  out  till  the  arrival  of  the  Venetian 
fleet,  which  had  been  solicited  by  the  emperor.  The 
first  day's  action  was  not  disadvantageous  to  Bohemond, 
a  beardless  youth,  who  commanded  his  father's  navy. 
All  night  the  Venetian  galleys  remained  at  anchor,  in 
the  form  of  a  crescent,  and  the  victory  of  the  following 
day  was  decided  by  the  dexterity  of  their  evolutions, 
the  station  of  their  archers,  the  weight  of  their  jave- 
lins, and  the  borrowed  aid  of  the  Greek  fire.  The 
Apulian  vessels  fled  to  the  shore,  but  several  of  them 
were  cut  from  their  cables  and  dragged  away  by  the 
conqueror ;  and  a  sally  from  the  town  carried  slaughter 
11* 


126  DEFEAT    OF    AI.F.XIVS. 

and  dismay  to  the  tenls  of  tin-  Nor-nan  duke.     As  the 
Venetians  were  now  masters  oi'  the  soa.  t,:e  bf.~. 
were  supplied  with  plenty  of  pro^  •  ;i  ilimine 

began  to  rat»e  in  tlie  camp  of  the  enemy  ;  anil  this 
calamity  was  soon  followed  by  a  plague,  which  in  the 
space  of  three  months  is  said  to  have  destroyed  ten 
lliou.-and  men. 

Not  withstanding  all  these  disasters,  however,  Robert 
did  not  abandon  the  sien-e  :  having:  found  means  to 
supply  his  famished  troops  with  provisions,  he  con- 
tinued it  with  such  vigour,  that  the  courage  of  the  be- 
sieged began  at  last  to  tail  them  ;  and  Paleologus  sent 
repeated  messages  to  the  emperor,  acquainting  him 
that  he  would  be  obliged  to  surrender  unless  very 
speedily  assisted.  On  this  Alexius  marched  in  person 
to  the  relief  of  the  city,  but  was  defeated  with  great 
loss  by  Robert.  The  whole  right  wing  of  Alexius's 
army,  finding  themselves  hard  pressed  by  the  enemy, 
fled  to  a  church  dedicated  to  St.  Michael,  imagining 
they  would  there  find  themselves  in  a  place  of  safety ; 
but  the  victorious  army  pursuing  them,  set  fire  to  the 
church,  which  was  burnt  to  ashes  with  nil  who  were 
in  it.  The  emperor  himself  with  great  difficulty  made 
his  escape,  leaving  the  enemy  masters  of  his  camp  and 
all  his  baggage.  Soon  after  this  defeat,  the  city  sur- 
rendered ;  and  Alexius  being  destitute  of  resources  for 
carrying  on  the  war,  seized  on  the  wealth  of  churches 
and  monasteries,  which  gave  much  ofl'ence  to  the 
clergy,  and  was  near  occasioning  great  disturbances 
in  the  imperial  city. 

At  the  same  time,  Alexius  entering  into  an  alliance 
with  Henry  emperor  of  Germany,  persuaded  him  to 
invade  the  dominions  of  Robert  in  Italy.  At  first 
Henry  met  with  great  success;  but  was  soon  over- 
come, and  driven  out  of  that  country  by  Robert 
Bohemond,  in  the  mean  time,  reduced  several  places 
in  Illyricum  ;  and,  having  defeated  Alexius  in  two 
pitched  battles,  entered  Thessaly,  and  sat  down  before 
Larissa.  This  place,  being  defended  by  an  officer  of 
great  courage  and  experience  in  war,  held  out  till  the 


DEATH    OF    ROBERT.  127 

emperor  came  to  its  relief.  Soon  after  bis  arrival,  he 
found  means  to  draw  a  strong  party  of  Bohemond'a 
men  into  an  ambuscade,  and  cut  them  off  almost  en- 
tirely. 

However,  in  the  battle  which  was  fought  a  few  days 
after,  Bohemond  had  the  advantage;  but  his  troops 
mutinying  and  refusing  to  carry  on  the  war,  he  was 
obliged  to  return  to  Italy.  Alexius  taking  advantage 
of  his  absence,  recovered  several  cities ;  and  being 
informed  that  Robert  was  making  great  preparations 
against  him,  he  had  recourse  once  more  to  the  Vene- 
tians. By  them  he  ivas  assisted  with  a  powerful  fleet, 
which  defeated  that  of  Robert  in  two  engagements; 
but  being  soon  after  surprised  by  him,  they  were  de- 
feated with  the  loss  of  almost  their  whole  navy. 

Robert  is  said  to  have  used  his  victory  with  great 
barbarity,  putting  many  of  his  prisoners  to  death  with 
unheard-of  torments.  The  Venetians  equipped  a 
second  fleet ;  and  joining  that  of  tbe  emperor,  fell  un- 
expectedly upon  Robert's  navy,  who  were  riding  with- 
out the  least  apprehension  in  Buthrotum,  sunk  most 
of  his  ships,  and  took  a  great  number  of  prisoners,  his 
wife  and  younger  sons  having  narrowly  escaped  tailing 
into  their  hands.  Robert  made  great  preparations  to 
revenue  this  defeat;  but  was  prevented  by  death  from 
executing  his  designs  ;  and,  after  his  decease,  his  son 
Roger  did  not  think  proper  to  pursue  so  dangerous  and 
expensive  a  war.  He  therefore  recalled  his  troops, 
and  the  places  which  had  b^cn  conquered  by  Robert 
and  Bohemond  submitted  ane\v  to  the  emperor. 

This  war  was  scn.rce  ended,  when  the  Scythians 
passing  the  Danube  laid  waste  great  part  of  Thrace, 
committing  everywhere  the  greatest  barbarities. — 
Against  rh'-m  the  emperor  dispatched  an  army  under 
the  command  of  Pacurianus  and  Branas.  The  latter 
inMsted  upon  engaging  the  enemy  contrary  to  the 
opinion  oT  his  colleague;  and  his  rashness  caused  the 
loss  of  the  greater  part  of  the  army,  who  were  cut  oft 
by  the  Scythians,  together  with  the  two  generals. 
Talicius,  an  officer  who  had  signalized  himself  on 


128  THE  CRUSADES. 

many  occasions,  was  appointed  to  command  the  army 
in  their  room.  He  fell  upon  the  enemy  as  they  lay 
securely  in  the  neighourhood  of  Piiilippopolis,  cut  great 
numbers  of  them  .in  pieces,  and  obliged  the  rest  to  re- 
tire in  great  confusion. 

The  following  spring,  however,  they  returned  in 
such  numbers,  that  the  emperor  resolved  to  march 
again-t  them  in  person.  Accordingly  he  set  out  for 
Adrianople,  and  from  thence  to  a  place  called  Lardai. 
Here,  contrary  to  the  advice  of  his  best  officers,  he 
ventured  a  battle ;  in  which  he  was  utterly  defeated 
with  the  loss  of  vast  numbers  of  his  men,  he  himself 
escaping  with  the  utmost  difficulty. 

The  next  year  he  was  attended  with  no  better  suc- 
cess, his  army  being  entirely  defeated  with  the  loss  of 
his  camp  and  baggage.  In  the  year  following,  1084, 
the  emperor  retrieved  his  credit ;  and  gave  the  Scy- 
thians such  an  overthrow,  that  very  few  escaped  the 
general  slaughter.  Notwithstanding  this  disaster, 
however,  they  again  invaded  the  empire  in  1093. 
To  this  they  were  encouraged  by  an  impostor  called 
Leo,  who  pretended  to  be  the  eldest  son  of  Romanus 
Diogenes.  The  young  Prince  had  been  slain  in  a 
battle  with  the  Turks;  but  as  the  Scythians  only 
wanted  a  pretence  to  renew  the  war,  they  received 
the  impostor  with  joy.  By  a  stratagem,  however,  Leo 
was  murdered  ;  and  the  Scythians  being  afterwards 
overthrown  in  two  great  battles,  were  obliged  to  sub- 
mit on  the  emperor's  own  terms. 

Since  the  year  1083,  the  war  had  been  carried  on 
with  the  Turks  with  various  success ;  but  now  an  as- 
sociation was  formed  in  the  west  against  these  infidels, 
which  threatened  the  utter  ruin  of  the  Turkish  nation. 
This  was  occasioned  by  the  superstition  of  the  Chris- 
tians, who  thought  it  a  meritorious  action  to  venture 
their  lives  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land,  pos- 
sessed at  that  time  by  the  Turks  and  Saracens.  Had 
the  western  princes  been  properly  assisted  by  the  em- 
perors of  the  East  in  this  undertaking,  the  Turks  had 
undoubtedly  been  unable  to  resist  them ;  but  so  far 


JOHN   COMNENUS.  129 

from  this,  the  Latins  were  looked  upon  by  them  as  no 
less  enemies  than  the  Turks ;  and  indeed  whatever 
places  they  took  from  the  infidels,  they  never  thought 
of  restoring  to  the  emperors  of  Constantinople,  to  whom 
they  originally  belonged,  but  erected  a  number  of  small 
independent  principalities,  which  neither  having  suffi- 
cient strength  to  defend  themselves,  nor  being  properly 
supported  by  one  another,  soon  became  a  prey  to  the 
Turks. 

John,  the  son  and  successor  of  Alexius  Comnenus, 
governed  the  kingdom  with  the  greatest  clemency ; 
and  feared  by  his  nobles,  and  beloved  by  his  people,  he 
was  never  reduced  to  the  painful  necessity  of  punish- 
ing, or  even  after  the  treason  of  his  sister  Anna  Com- 
nena,  of  pardoning  his  personal  enemies.  During 
his  government  of  twenty-five  years,  the  penalty  of 
death  was  abolished  in  the  Roman  empire.  Severe  to 
himself,  indulgent  to  others,  chaste,  frugal,  and  ab- 
stemious, John  despised  and  moderated  the  stately 
magnificence  of  the  Byzantine  court,  which  had  been 
so  oppressive  to  the  people.  Under  such  a  prince,  in- 
nocence had  nothing  to  fear,  and  merit  had  everything 
to  hope;  and  without  assuming  the  tyrannic  office  of 
censor,  he  introduced  a  gradual  though  visible  reforma- 
tion in  the  public  and  private  manners  of  Constantino- 
ple. The  only  defect  of  this  accomplished  character, 
\vas  the  frailty  of  noble  minds,  the  love  of  arms  and 
military  glory.  He  directed  his  arms,  however,  to  a 
good  object,  that  of  expelling  the  Turks  from  the 
Hellespont  and  the  Bosphorus.  He  soon  drove  the 
barbarians  to  the  mountains,  liberated  the  maritime 
provinces  of  Asia,  and  was  beginning  to  indulge  the 
ambitious  hope  of  restoring  the  ancient  limits  of  the 
empire,  when  a  singular  accident  put  a  period  to  his 
useful  life.  Hunting  the  wild  boar  in  the  valley  of 
Anazarbus,  he  fixed  his  javelin  in  the  body  of  the  furious 
animal ;  but  in  the  struggle,  a  poisoned  arrow  dropped 
from  his  quiver,  and  a  slight  wound  in  his  hand,  which 
produced  a  mortification,  was  fatal  to  the  best  and 
greatest  of  the  Comnenian  dynasty. 


130  ANDRONICUS. 

John  was  in  1143  succeeded  by  his  son  Manuel,  who 
carried  on  the  war  against  the  Turks  with  indifferent 
success.  Andronicus,  the  nephew  of  the  Emperor 
John,  and  grandson  of  Alexius  Comnenus,  was  accused 
by  Manuel  of  treason,  and  strictly  confined  in  a  palace 
of  the  tower  of  Constantinople. 

In  this  prison,  he  was  left  above  twelve  years,  when 
one  day,  alone  and  pensive,  he  displaced  some  broken 
bricks  in  a  dark  corner  of  his  chamber,  and  gradually 
widening  the  passage,  he  struck  upon  and  explored  a 
dark  and  forgotten  recess.  Into  this  hole  he  conveyed 
himself  and  the  remains  of  his  provisions,  replacing 
the  bricks  in  their  former  position,  and  erasing  with 
care  the  footsteps  of  his  retreat.  At  the  hour  of  their 
customary  visit,  his  guards  were  amazed  by  the  silence 
and  solitude  of  the  prison,  and  reported  with  shame 
and  fear  his  incomprehensible  flight.  The  gates  of 
the  palace  and  city  were  instantly  shut ;  the  strictest 
orders  were  despatched  into  the  provinces  for  the  re- 
covery of  the  fugitive ;  and  his  wife,  on  the  suspicion 
that  she  had  aided  his  escape,  was  basely  imprisoned 
in  the  same  tower.  At  the  dead  of  night  she  was 
visited  by  her  husband,  who  nightly  came  from  his  re- 
cess, and  alleviated  the  tediousness  of  his  confinement 
by  the  embraces  of  his  wife. 

In  the  custody  of  a  woman,  the  vigilance  of  the 
keepers  was  insensibly  relaxed  ;  and  the  captive  found 
means  to  accomplish  his  real  escape,  when  he  was  dis- 
covered, brought  back  to  Constantinople,  and  loaded 
with  a  double  chain.  At  length,  he  found  the  moment 
and  the  means  of  his  deliverance.  A  boy,  his  domestic 
servant,  intoxicated  the  guards,  and  obtained  in  wax, 
the  impression  of  the  keys.  By  the  diligence  of  his 
friends,  similar  keys,  with  a  bundle  of  ropes,  were  in- 
troduced into  the  prison  in  the  bottom  of  a  hogshead. 
Andronicus  unlocked  the  doors,  descended  from  the 
tower,  concealed  himself  all  day  among  the  bushes,  and 
at  night  scaled  the  garden  wall  of  the  palace.  A  boat 
awaited  him;  he  visited  his  own  house,  embraced  hia 
children,  cast  away  his  chain,  mounted  a  fleet  horse, 


DEPOSITION   OF   ANDROMCUS.  131 

and  directed  his  rapid  course  towards  the  banks  of  the 
Danube. 

At  Anchialus,  in  Thrace,  being  supplied  by  a  friend 
with  horses  and  money,  he  crossed  the  river,  traversed 
with  speed  the  desert  of  Moldavia  and  the  Carpathian 
hills,  and  had  almost  reached  the  town  of  Halicz,  in 
Polish  Russia,  when  he  was  intercepted  by  a  party  of 
Walachians,  who  resolved  to  convey  their  important 
captive  to  Constantinople.  By  his  presence  of  mind, 
he  soon  extricated  himself  from  this  new  danger. 
Under  pretence  of  sickness,  he  dismounted  in  the  night, 
and  was  allowed  to  step  aside  from  the  troop.  He 
planted  his  long  staff  in  the  ground,  clothed  it  with  his 
cap  and  upper  garment,  and,  stealing  into  the  wood, 
lefl  a  scarecrow  to  amuse,  for  some  time,  the  vigilant 
Walachians. 

He  arrived  in  safety  at  Halicz,  and  placing  himself 
under  the  protection  of  the  Russian  government,  was 
honourably  conducted  to  Kiow,  the  residence  of  the 
great  duke.  There  he  soon  ingratiated  himself  into 
the  confidence  of  the  Russian  prince,  and  obtained  the 
forgiveness  of  Manuel  by  obtaining  the  assistance  of 
the  Russians  for  the  empire  in  the  invasion  of  Hungary. 
Andronicus  marched  at  the  head  of  the  Russian  calvary 
from  the  Borysthenes  to  the  Danube,  and  his  free  par- 
don was  won  from  the  emperor  by  the  valour  and 
courage  displayed  by  him  in  the  assault  of  Zemlin. 

No  sooner  was  he  restored  to  freedom  and  his  country 
than  his  ambition  revived.  It  was,  however,  kept  in 
check  during  the  life  of  Manuel,  but  when  he  died  in 
1180,  the  evils  attending  the  minority  of  the  young 
prince,  Alexius  II.,  induced  him  to  declare  his  autho- 
rity, at  first  as  the  guardian  of  the  young  emperor; 
and  soon,  by  the  murder  of  the  empress  and  her  son, 
he  ascended  a  bloody  throne.  His  cruelty  soon  turned 
his  subjects  against  him,  and  in  less  than  two  years,  he 
was  dragged  from  the  throne  by  Isaac  II.,  a  descendant, 
in  the  female  line,  of  the  great  Alexius.  Isaac,  in- 
stead of  a  legal  trial,  abandoned  him  to  the  many  suf- 
ferers whom  he  had  deprived  of  a  father,  a  husband,  or 


132  FIUE    AT     CONSTANTINOPLE. 

a  friend.  His  teetli  and  hair,  an  eye  and  a  hand,  were 
torn  from  him  as  a  poor  compensation  for  their  loss  ; 
and  a  short  respite  was  allowed  that  lie  might  feel  the 
bitterness  of  death.  Mounted  on  a  camel,  without  any 
danger  of  rescue,  he  was  paraded  through  the  streets 
of  the  city,  and  the  basest  of  the  populace  inflicted 
upon  him  blows  and  outrages.  Andronicus  was  then 
hung  by  the  feet  between  two  pillars  that  supported 
the  statues  of  a  wolf  and  a  sow  ;  and  every  hand  that 
could  reach  him,  inflicted  on  his  body  some  mark  of 
ingenious  or  brutal  cruelty,  till  two  friendly  or  furious 
Italians,  plunging  their  swords  into  his  body,  put  a 
period  to  his  sufferings. 

The  descendants  of  Andronicus  usurped  the  sove- 
reignty of  Trebizond  ;  and  at  Constantinople,  Constan- 
tino Angelus,  by  his  marriage  with  a  daughter  of 
Alexius,  arrived  at  the  imperial  throne.  His  son  An- 
dronicus was  distinguished  only  for  cowardice.  His 
grandson  Isaac  punished  and  succeeded  the  tyrant; 
but  he  was  destroyed  by  his  own  vices,  and  the  ambition 
of  his  brother;  and  their  discord  introduced  the  Latins 
to  the  conquest  of  Constantinople,  the  first  great  period 
in  the  fall  of  the  Eastern  empire. 

In  the  year  I'^Oo,  happened  a  dreadful  fire  at  Con- 
stantinople, occasioned  by  some  Latin  soldiers.  These 
had  plundered  a  mosque,  which  the  Turks  residing  in 
Constantinople  had  been  suffered  to  build  there.  For 
this  reason  they  were  attacked  by  the  infidels  ;  who, 
being  much  superior  to  them  in  number,  the  Latins 
found  themselves  obliged  to  set  fire  to  some  hou>es,  in 
order  to  make  their  escape  with  safety.  The  flames 
spreading  in  an  instant  from  street  to  street,  reduced 
in  a  short  time  great  part  of  the  city  v>  ashes,  with 
the  capacious  storehouses  which  had  been  built  at  a 
vast  expense  on  the  quay.  The  late  emperor  Isaac 
Angelus,  who  had  been  restored  to  his  throne  by  the  La- 
tins, died  soon  after  their  departure  from  Ci'ii.-i  intino- 
ple,  leaving  his  son  Alexius  sole  master  of  the  empire. 

The  young  prince,  to  discharge  the  large  sums  he 
had  promised  to  the  French  and  Venetians  for  their 


JOHN    DtTAS. 


133 


assistance,  was  cMi-i>d  lo  lay  heavy  tax^s  en  his  .-ub- 
:   and  this,  \vitn    tin-  ^n  at  eMeeni  an- 
u  to  his  deliverers,  raided  a  general  disc. 
among  the  people  or'  Constantinople,  who  were  >\\«rn 

ea  to  tin.-  l/.i.  :.>.  Tins  encouraged  John  / 
surnamed  Mourzonfle  from  his  joined  and  thick  eve- 
brows,  to  attempt  the  sovereignty.  Unhappily  he  ti/and 
-  to  put  his  treacherous  designs  in  execution  ;  and 
strangled  the  young  prince  with  his  own  han-is.  After 
this  he  presented  himself  to  the  people;  told  them  what 
he  had  done,  which  he  pretended  w;-.s  in  order  to  secure 
their  liberties;  and  earnestly  entreated  them  to  choose 
an  emperor  who  had  courage  to  defend  them  ag»in.-t 
the  Latins,  that  were  ready  to  oppress  and  enslave 
them.  On  this  he  was  instantly  saluted  emperor  by 
the  inconstant  multitude;  but  this  usurpation  proved 
the  ruin  of  the  city. 

The  Latins  immediately  resolved  to  revenge  the 
death  of  the  young  prince  ;  and,  as  they  had  been  so 
often  betrayed  and  retarded  in  their  expeditions  to  the 
Holy  Land  by  the  emperors  of  Constantinople,  to  make 
themselves  masters  of  that  city,  and  sei'ze  the  empire 
for  themselves.  In  consequence  of  this  resolution 
they  mustered  all  their  forces  in  Asia,  and  having 
crossed  the  straits,  laid  siege  to  Constantinople  by  sea 
and  land.  The  tyrant,  who  was  a  man  of  great  cour- 
age and  experience  in  war,  made  a  vigorous  defence. 

The  Latins,  however,  after  having  battered  the 
walls  for  several  days  together  with  an  incredible 
number  of  engines,  gave  a  general  assault  on  the  8th 
of  April  1204.  The  attack  lasted  from  break  of  day 
till  three  in  the  afternoon,  when  they  were  forced  to 
retire,  after  having  lost  some  of  their  engines,  and  a 
great  number  of  men.  The  assault  was  nevertheless 
renewed  four  days  after  :  when,  after  a  warm  dispute, 
the  French  planted  their  standard  on  one  of  the  towers  ; 
which  the  Venetians  observing,  they  quickly  made 
themselves  masters  of  four  other  towers,  where  they 
likewise  displayed  their  ensigns. 

In  the  mean  time  three  of  the  gates  being  broken 
12 


134 


TAKING    OF    CONSTANTINOPLE. 


down  by  the  battering  rams,  and  those  who  had  scaled 
the  walls  having  killed  the  guards,  and  opened  the  gates 
between  the  towers  they  had  taken,  the  whole  army 
entered,  and  drew  up  in  battle  array  between  the  walls. 
The  Greeks  fled  up  and  down  in  the  greatest  confusion  ; 
and  several  parties  were  by  the  Latins  dispatched  to 
scour  the  streets,  who  put  all  they  met  to  the  sword, 
without  distinction  of  age  or  condition. 

Night  put  a  stop  to  the  dreadful  slaughter,  when  the 
princes  sounding  the  retreat,  placed  their  men  in  dif- 
erent  quarters  of  the  city,  with  orders  to  be  upon  their 
guard,  not  doubting  but  they  should  be  attacked  early 
next  morning.  They  were  surprised,  however,  at  that 
time  by  the  entire  submission  of  the  Greeks;  to  whom 
they  promised  their  lives,  but  at  the  same  tinje,  order- 
ing them  to  retire  to  their  houses,  they  gave  up  the 
city  to  be  plundered  by  the  soldiers  for  that  day. 
They  strictly  enjoined  their  men  to  abstain  from 
slaughter,  to  preserve  the  honour  of  the  women,  and 
to  bring  the  whole  booty  into  one  place,  that  a  just 
distribution  might  be  made  according  to  the  rank  and 
merit  of  each  individual. 

The  Greeks  had  undoubtedly  concealed  their  most 
valuable  effects  during  the  night ;  many  persons  of 
the  first  rank  had  escaped,  and  carried  along  with 
them  immense  treasures;  the  soldiers  had  probably,  as 
is  usual  in  such  cases,  reserved  things  of  great  value 
for  themselves,  notwithstanding  all  prohibitions  to  the 
contrary  ;  and  yet  the  booty,  without  the  statues,  pic- 
tures and  jewels,  amounted  to  a  sum  almost  incredible. 
As  for  Mourzoufle  he  made  his  escape  in  the  night : 
embarking  on  a  small  vessel  with  Euphrosyne,  the 
wife  of  Alexius  Angelas  a  late  usurper,  and  her  daugh- 
ter Eudoxia,  for  whose  sake  he  had  abandoned  his 
lawful  wife. 


XX.  BALDWIN  I. — HENRY. — PETER  OF  COURTL'.NAY. — 
ROBERT. — JOHN  OF  BRIENNE.— BALDWIN  II. — THE 
LATINS  EXPELLED  FROM  CONSTANTINOPLE. — MICHAEL 
PAL.EOLOGUS. — His  TREACHERY  AND  INHUMANITY. 
— ANDRONICTS. 

THE  Latins  immediately  (A.  D.  1204,)  elected 
Baldwin,  Count  of  Flanders  and  Hainault,  emperor  of 
the  East.  Two  fugitives,  however,  who  had  reigned  at 
Constantinople,  still  claimed  the  title  of  emperor;  and 
the  subjects  of  their  fallen  throne  might  have  been 
moved  to  pity  by  the  misfortunes  of  the  elder  Alexius, 
or  excited  to  revenge  by  the  spirit  of  Mourzoufle.  A 
common  interest  and  a  common  enemy,  now  induced 
the  more  recent  usurper  to  unite  with  his  predecessor. 
Mourzoufle  was  received  with  smiles  and  honours  in  the 
camp  of  his  father  Alexius ;  but  the  wicked  can  never 
love,  and  should  rarely  trust  their  fellow-criminals  ;  he 
was  seized  in  the  bath,  deprived  of  his  eyes,  stripped 
of  his  troops  and  treasures,  and  turned  out  to  wander, 
an  object  of  horror  and  contempt  to  those,  who  with 
more  propriety  could  hate,  and  with  more  justice  could 
punish  the  assassin  of  the  Emperor  Isaac  and  his  son. 
As  the  tyrant,  pursued  by  fear  or  remorse,  was  stealing 
over  to  Asia,  lie  was  seized  by  the  Latins  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  condemned,  after  an  open  trial,  to  an  igno- 
minious death.  From  the  summit  of  the  Theo  Ionian 
column,  a  pillar  of  white  marble  of  one  hundred  and 
forty-seven  feet  in  height,  he  was  cast  down  head- 
long, and  dashed  in  pieces  on  the  pavement,  in  the 
presence  of  innumerable  spectators,  who  filled  the  forum 
of  Taurus,  and  admired  the  accomplishment  of  an  old 
prediction,  which  was  fulfilled  by  this  event. 

The  fate  of  Alexius  is  less  tragical.  He  was  sent 
by  the  Marquis  of  Montserrat,  a  captive  to  Italy,  and 
a  gift  to  the  king  of  the  Romans.  His  daughter,  how- 

(135) 


136  THEODORE     LASCARIS. 

ever,  before  the  national  calamity,  had  been  given  in 
marriage  to  a  young  hero,  Theodore  Lascaris,  who 
continued  the  succession,  and  finally  restored  the 
throne  of  the  Greek  princes.  After  the  capture  of 
Constantinople,  and  the  flight  of  Mourzotifie,  he  retired 
to  Anatolia,  and  there,  assuming  first  the  title  of  despot, 
and  afterwards  of  emperor,  drew  to  his  standard  the 
bolder  spirits  who  were  fortified  against  slavery  by  the 
contempt  of  life;  and  as  every  means  was  lawful  for 
the  public  safety,  implored  without  scruple  the  alliance 
of  the  Turkish  sultan.  Nice,  where  Theodore  esta- 
blished his  residence,  Prusa,  and  Philadelphia,  Smyrna, 
and  Ephesus,  opened  the  gates  to  their  deliverer.  He 
derived  strength  and  reputation  from  his  victories,  and 
even  from  his  defeats;  and  the  successor  of  Constan- 
tino preserved  a  fragment  of  the  empire,  from  the  banks 
of  the  Meander  to  the  suburbs  of  Nicomedia,  from  the 
hands  of  the  Latins. 

Another  portion,  distant  and  obscure,  was  possessed 
by  the  lineal  heir  of  the  Comneni,  a  son  of  the  virtuous 
Manuel,  a  grandson  of  the  tyrant  Andronicus.  His 
name  was  Alexius ;  and  the  epithet  of  great  was  ap- 
plied perhaps  to  his  stature,  rather  than  to  his  exploits. 
By  the  indulgence  of  the  Aneeli,  he  was  appointed 
governor  or  duke  of  Trebizond  :  his  birth  gave  him 
ambition ;  the  revolutiqn,  independence ;  and  without 
chanuinir  his  title,  he  reigned  in  peace  from  Sinope  to 
the  Phasis  along  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  title 
of  Emperor  of  Trebizond  was  first  assumed  by  his 
grandson. 

In  the  west,  a  third  fragment  was  saved  from  the 
common  shipwreck  by  Michael,  a  bastard  of  the  house 
of  Angeli,  who,  before  the  revolution,  had  been  known 
as  a  hostage,  a  soldier,  and  a  rebel.  He  fled  from  the 
camp  of  the  Marquis  of  Montserrat,  married  the 
daughter  of  the  governor  of  Dnrazzo,  succeeded  him 
in  the  command  of  that  place,  assumed  the  title  of 
despot,  and  founded  a  strong  and  conspicuous  princi- 
pality in  Epirup,  .'Etolia,  and  Thessaly,  which  have 
ever  been  peopled  by  a  warlike  race. 


HENRY.  137 

In  the  meantime,  the  Greeks,  who  had  offered  their 
services  to  their  new  sovereigns,  were  excluded  by  the 
ity  Latins  from  all  civil  and  military  honours. 
Incensed  at  this  treatment,  and  oppressed  by  the  double 
weight  of  the  priests  vested  with  temporal  power,  and 
of  the  soldier  inflamed  by  fanatic  hatred,  whoever  was 
learned  or  holy,  whoever  \vas  noble  or  valiant,  removed 
to  the  independent  states  of  Trebizond,  Epirtis,  or 
Nice,  and  held  themselves  in  readiness  to  revolt.  As 
long1  as  the  crusaders  were  united  at  Constantinople, 
the  memory  of  their  conquest,  and  the  terror  of  their 
arms,  imposed  silence  on  the  captive  land  ;  their  dis- 
persion, however,  betrayed  the  smallness  of  their  num- 
bers, and  the  detects  of  their  discipline;  and  some 
failures  and  mischances  revealed  the  secret  that  they 
were  not  invincible.  As  the  fear  of  the  Greeks  abated, 
their  hatred  increased.  They  murmured,  they  con- 
spired, and  before  a  year  of  slavery  had  elapsed,  they 
accepted  the  proffered  aid  of  the  Bulgarians.  The 
Latins  were  attacked  and  defeated,  and  the  emperor 
Baldwin  taken  prisoner.  He  soon  after  died  in  prison, 
and  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  of  Constantinople  by 
his  brother  Henry,  who,  aided  by  the  fickle  Greeks, 
soon  defeated  the  Bulgarians,  and  concluded  with  them 
an  honourable  peace.  Henry  reigned  ten  years  with 
courage  and  prudence,  and  dying  in  1216,  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother-in-law,  Peter  of  Courtenay, 
cousin  to  the  king  of  France. 

The  poverty  of  Peter,  obliged  him  to  attempt  the 
journey  from  Durazzo  to  Thessalonica  by  land.  He 
was  soon  lost  in  the  mountains  of  Epirus.  The 
passes  were  fortified  against  him  by  his  enemies.  His 
provisions  were  exhausted,  he  was  delayed  and  de- 
ceived by  a  treacherous  negotiation :  and,  after  Peter 
and  the  Roman  legate  were  arrested  at  a  banquet,  their 
followers,  without  leaders  or  hopes,  were  eager  to  ex- 
change their  arms  for  the  delusive  promise  of  mercy 
and  bread.  The  Pope  thundered  forth  excommunica- 
tions against  Theodore  of  Epirus,  for  the  detention  and 
imprisonment  of  his  legate,  while  the  emperor  was 
12* 


138  CONSTANTINOPLE   TAKEN. 

forgotten.  No  sooner  was  he  satisfied  by  tho  deliver- 
ance of  the  priest,  and  a  promise  of  obedience,  than  lie 
pardoned  and  protected  the  despot  of  Epirus.  His 
peremptory  commands  prevented  the  ardour  of  the  Ve- 
netians and  the  king  of  Hungary,  who  wished  to 
i  liberate  Peter,  and  it  was  only  by  a  natural  or  untimely 
death  that  he  was  release  i  from  his  hopeless  captivity. 

Constantinople  remained  subject  to  the  L-Ums  tinder 
the  successive  reigns  of  Robert,  the  success  n-  of  Peter 
of  Courtenay,  John  of  Brienne,  and  Baldwin  II.,  until 
A.  D.  1261.  At  that  perio.i,  they  were  e.\pe!ie,i  by 
Alexius  Strategopulus,  the  general  of  .Michael  Paia-o- 
logus,  emperor  of  Nice.  Alexius  was  a  person  of 
an  illustrious  family  ;  and  for  his  envnent  services,  \vas 
distinguished  with  the  title  of  Ca^ar.  He  had  been 
sent  against  Alexius  Angelus,  despot  of  Epirus,  who  now 
attempted  to  reconquer  some  places  in  Thessaly  and 
Greece  from  Michael  Pateologus,  one  of  the  Greek 
emperors,  that,  since  the  capture  of  Constantinople,  had 
kept  their  court  at  Nice  ;  and  to  try  whether  he  could 
on  his  march  surprise  the  imperial  city  itself.  Alexius 
having  passed  the  straits,  encamped  at  a  place  called 
Rhegium,  where  he  was  informed  by  the  natives  that 
a  strong  body  of  the  Latins  had  been  sent  to  the  siege 
of  Daphnusa,  that  the  garrison  was  in  great  want  of 
provisions,  and  that  it  would  be  no  difficult  matter  to 
surprise  the  city. 

Hereupon  the  Greek  general  resolved  at  all  events 
to  attempt  it;  in  which  he  was  encouraged  by  some 
of  the  inhabitants,  who,  coming  privately  to  his  camp, 
offered  themselves  to  be  his  guides.  He  approached 
the  walls  in  the  dead  of  the  night,  which  some  of  his 
men  scaled  without  being  observed ;  and,  killing  the 
sentries  whom  they  found  asleep,  opened  the  gates  to 
the  rest  of  the  army.  The  Greeks  rushing  in,  put  all 
they  met  to  the  sword  ;  and  at  the  same  time,  to  create 
more  terror,  set  fire  to  the  city  in  four  different  places. 

The  Latins,  concluding  from  thence  that  the  enemy's 
forces  were  far  more  numerous  than  they  really  were, 
did  not  so  much  as  attempt  either  to  drive  them  out,  or 


FLIGHT    OF    BALDWIN'. 


ISO 


•s. 


Flight  of  the  Emperor  Baldwin. 


to  extinguish  the  flames.  In  this  general  confusion, 
the  Emperor  Baldwin,  quitting  the  ensigns  of  majesty, 
tied  with  Justinian,  the  Latin  patriarch,  and  some  of  his 
intimate  friends,  to  the  sea-side ;  and  there  embarking 
in  a  small  vessel,  sailed  first  to  Eubcea,  and  afterwards 
to  Venice,  leaving  the  Greeks  in  full  possession  of 
Constantinople. 

When  news  of  this  surprising  and  altogether  un- 
expected success  of  Alexius  were  first  brought  to 
Palasologus,  he  could  scarce  give  credit  to  it;  but  re- 
ceiving soon  after  letters  from  Alexius  himself,  with  a 


140  TRIUMPH    OF    PALJEOLOGUS. 

particular  account  of  so  memorable  an  event,  he  ordered 
public  thanks  to  be  returned  in  all  the  churches,  ap- 
peared in  public  in  his  imperial  robes,  attended  by  the 
!id!.ll:ty  in  their  best  apparel,  and  ordered  couriers  to 
be  despatched  with  the  agreeable  news  into  all  parts 
of  the  empire. 

Soon  after,  having;  settled  his  affairs  at  Nice,  he  set 
out  for  Constantinople  with  the  empres.-,  his  son  Andrc- 
nicus,  the  senate,  and  nobility,  to  take  possession  of  the 
imperial  city,  and  fix  his  residence  in  that  place,  that 
had  originally  been  designed  for  the  seat  of  the  Eastern 
empire.  Having  passed  the  straits,  he  advanced  to  the 
golden  gate,  and  continued  some  days  without  the 
walls,  while  the  citizens  were  busied  in  making  the 
necessary  preparations  to  receive  him  with  a  magnifi- 
cence suitable  to  the  occasion. 

On  the  day  appointed,  the  golden  gate,  which  had 
been  long  shut  up,  was  opened,  and  the  emperor  enter- 
ing it  amidst  the  repeated  acclamations  of  the  multi- 
tude, marched  on  foot  to  the  great  palace.  He  was 
preceded  by  the  bishop  of  Cyzicus,  who  carried  an 
image  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  supposed  to  have  been  done 
by  St.  Luke,  and  followed  by  all  the  great  officers,  no- 
bility, and  chief  citizens,  pompously  dressed.  Public 
thanks  were  again  returned  in  the  church  of  St. 
Sophia,  at  which  the  emperor  assisted  in  person,  with 
the  clergy,  the  senate,  and  nobility.  These  exercises 
were  succeeded  by  all  sorts  of  rejoicings;  after  which 
the  emperor  carefully  surveyed  the  imperial  city. 
This  survey  greatly  allayed  his  joy.  He  saw  the 
stately  palaces  and  other  magnificent  buildings  of  the 
Roman  emperors  lying  in  ruins ;  the  many  capacious 
buildings  that  had  been  erected  by  his  predecessors,  at 
an  immense  charge,  destroyed  by  fire,  and  other  un- 
avoidable accidents  of  war;  several  streets  abandoned 
by  the  inhabitants,  and  choked  up  with  rubbish,  &c. 

These  objects  gave  the  emperor  no  small  concern, 
and  kindled  in  him  a  desire  of  restoring  the  city  to  its 
former  lustre.  In  the  meantime,  looking  upon  Alex- 
ius as  the  restorer  of  his  country,  he  caused  him  to 


ALEXIUS    EXALTED.  141 

be  clad  in  magnificent  robes;  placed  with  nis  o\vn 
hand  a  crown  on  his  head  ;  ordered  him  to  be  con- 
ducted through  the  city,  as  it  were  in  triumph  :  de- 
creed that  tor  a  whole  year  the  name  of  Alexius 
should  he  joined  in  the  public  prayers  with  his  own  ; 
and,  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  so  great  and  glorious 
an  action,  he  commanded  his  statue  to  be  erected  on  a 
stately  pillar  of  marble  before  the  church  of  the 
Apostles. 

His  next  care  was  to  re-people  the  city,  many  Greek 
families  having  withdrawn  from  it  while  it  was  held 
by  the  Latin?,  and  the  Latins  now  preparing  to  return 
to  their  respective  countries.  The  former  were  re- 
called home;  and  the  latter,  in  regard  of  the  great 
trade  they  carried  on,  were  allowed  many  valuable 
privileges,  which  induced  them  not  to  remove.  The 
Greeks  were  allowed  to  live  in  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful quarters  of  the  city,  to  be  governed  by  their  own 
laws  and  magistrate,  and  to  trade  without  paying  cus- 
toms or  taxes  of  any  kind.  Great  privileges  were 
likewise  granted  to  the  natives  of  Venice  and  Pisa, 
which  encouraged  them  to  lay  aside  all  thoughts  of  re- 
moving, and  the  trade  they  carried  on  proved  after- 
wards highly  advantageous  to  the  state. 

It  was  not  long,  however,  before  these  regulations 
were  altered.  The  emperor  being  soon  after  informed 
that  Baldwin,  lately  expelled  from  Constantinople,  had 
married  his  daughter  to  Charles  kin?  of  Sicily,  and 
given  him,  by  way  of  dowry,  the  imperial  city  itself, 
he  ordered  the  Genoese,  who  were  become  very  nu- 
merous, to  remove  first  to  Heraclea,  and  afterwards 
to  Galata,  where  they  continued.  As  for  the  Pisans 
and  Venetians,  who  were  not  so  numerous  and  weal- 
thy, they  were  allowed  to  continue  in  the  city. 

Palaeologus.  though  he  had  caused  himself  to  be  pro- 
claimed emperor,  and  was  possessed  of  absolute  sov- 
ereignty, was  as  yet  only  guardian  to  the  young  em- 
peror John  Lascaris,  then  about  twelve  years  of  age. 
But  having  now  settled  the  estate,  and  having  gained 
the  affections  both  of  natives  and  foreigners,  he  began 


142 


CRUELTY     OF    PAL^OLOGUR. 


to  think  of  securing  himself  and  his  posterity  in  the 
full  enjoyment  of  the  empire;  and  tor  this  reason 
cruelly  ordered  the  eyes  of  the  young  prince  to  be  put 
out,  pretending  that  none  but  himself  had  any  right  to 
the  city  or  empire  of  Constantinople,  which  he  alone 
had  recovered  out  of  the  hand  of  the  Latins. 

This  piece  of  treachery  and  inhumanity  involved  him 
in  great  troubles.  The  patriarch  immediately  excom- 
municated him  ;  and  he  would  in  all  probability  have 
been  driven  from  the  throne  by  a  combination  of  the 
western  princes,  had  he  not  engaged  pope  Urban  IV. 
to  espouse  his  cause,  by  promising  to  submit  himself, 
and  his  dominions  to  the  Latin  church.  Thus,  indeed, 
he  diverted  the  present  storm ;  but  this  proceeding 
caused  the  greatest  disturbances,  not  only  in  Con- 
stantinople, but  throughout  the  whole  empire,  nor  was 
Palaeologus  able  to  reconcile  his  subjects  to  this  union. 

In  1283  Michael  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Andronicus.  His  first  step  was  to  restore  the  ancient 
Greek  ceremonies,  thinking  he  could  not  begin  his 
reign  with  a  more  popular  act.  But  thus  he  involved 
himself  in  difficulties  still  greater  than  before.  Though 
Michael  had  not  been  able  fully  to  reconcile  his  Greek 
subjects  to  the  Latin  ceremonies,  yet  he  had  in  some 
degree  accomplished  his  purpose.  The  Latins  had  got 
a  considerable  footing  in  the  city,  and  defended  their 
ceremonies  with  great'  obstinacy ;  so  that  the  empire 
was  again  thrown  into  a  ferment  by  the  imprudent 
step. 


XXI.  WAR  WITH  THE  TURKS. — THEIR  FIRST  APPEAR- 
ANCE IN  EUROPE. — THEIR  DEFEAT. — CONSTANTINO- 
PLE BESIEGED  BY  I>AJ \ZET. BY  A.MIRATH.  B\' 

MOHAMMED. — DEATH    OF  CO.XSTAXTIXE. — CO.NSTAN- 
TINOPLE  TAKEN  BY  THE  TfRKS. 

ALL  this  time  the  Turks  had  been  continuing  their 
encroachments  on  the  empire,  which  h;id  it  not  been 
for  the  crusades  published  against  them  by  the  Pope, 
they  would  in  all  probability  have  made  themselves 
masters  of  before  this  time.  They  were  now  how- 
ever, very  successfully  opposed  by  Constantine,  the 
emperor's  brother:  but  his  valour  rendered  him  sus- 
pected by  the  emperor;  in  consequence  of  which  he 
was  thrown  into  prison,  along  with  several  persons  of 
great  distinction. 

On  the  removal  of  this  brave  commander,  the  Turks, 
under  the  famous  Othoman,  made  themselves  masters 
of  several  places  in  Phrygia,  Caria,  and  Bithynia ; 
and,  among  the  rest,  of  the  city  of  Nice.  To  put  a 
stop  to  their  conquests,  the  emperor  despatched  against 
them  Philanthropenus  and  Libadarius,  two  officers  of 
great  experience  in  war.  The  former  gained  some 
advantage  over  the  enemy ;  but  being  elated  with  his 
success,  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  emperor. 
This  rebellion,  however,  was  soon  suppressed,  Philan- 
thropenus being  betrayed  by  his  own  men :  but  the 
Turks,  taking  advantage  of  these  intestine  commotions, 
not  only  extended  their  dominions  in  Asia,  but  con- 
quered most  of  the  islands  in  the  Mediterranean  ;  and, 
being  masters  of  the  sea,  infested  the  coasts  of  the 
empire,  to  the  utter  ruin  of  trade  and  commerce. 

From  this  time  the  Roman  empire  tended  fast  to 
dissolution.  After  the  revolt  of  Philanthropenus,  the 
emperor  could  no  longer  trust  his  subjects,  and  there- 
fore hired  the  Massagetes  to  assist  him  :  but  they,  be- 
having in  a  careless  manner,  were  first  defeated  by 

(143) 


144  SUCCESS    OF   THE   TURKS. 

their  enemies,  and  afterwards  turned  their  arms 
against  those  they  came  to  assist.  Hi-  n<-.\t  applied  to 
the  Catalans,  who  behaved  in  the  same  manner;  and 
having  ravaged  the  few  places  left  the  emperor  in 
Asia,  returned  into  Europe,  and  called  the  Turks  to 
their  assistance. 

This  happened  in  the  year  1292,  and  was  the  first 
appearance  of  the  Turks  in  Europe.  This  enterprise, 
however,  was  unsuccessful.  Having  loaded  thcm.-t  Ivt's 
with  booty,  they  offered  to  depart  quietly  if  they  were 
allowed  a  safe  passage,  and  ships  to  transport  them  to 
Asia.  To  this  the  ernperor,  willing  to  get  rid  of  such 
troublesome  guests,  readily  consented,  and  ordered  the 
vessels  to  be  got  ready  with  all  possible  expedition. 
But  the  Greek  officers  observing  the  immense  booty 
with  which  they  were  loaded,  resolved  to  fall  upon 
them  in  the  night,  and  cut  them  all  off  at  once.  This 
scheme,  however,  was  not  managed  with  such  secrecy 
but  that  the  Turks  had  notice  of  it,  and  therefore  pre- 
pared for  their  defence. 

They  first  surprised  a  strong  castle  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, and  then  found  means  to  acquaint  their  country- 
men in  Asia  with  their  dangerous  situation.  Their 
brethren,  enticed  with  the  hopes  of  booty,  were  not 
long  of  coming  to  their  assistance;  and  having  crossed 
the  Hellespont  in  great  numbers,  ravaged  the  adjacent 
country,  making  excursions  to  the  very  gates  of  Con- 
stantinople. At  last  the  emperor  determined  to  root 
them  out ;  and  accordingly  marched  against  them 
with  all  his  forces,  the  country  people  flocking  to  him 
from  all  quarters.  The  Turks  at  first  gave  themselves 
over  for  lost ;  but  finding  the  Greeks  negligent  of  dis- 
cipline, they  attacked  their  army  unexpectedly,  utterly 
defeated  it,  and  made  themselves  masters  of  the  camp. 
After  this  unexpected  victory,  they  continued  for  two 
years  to  ravage  Thrace  in  the  most  terrible  manner. 
At  last,  however,  they  were  defeated  ;  and  being  after- 
wards shut  up  in  the  Chersonesus,  they  were  all  cut  to 
pieces  or  taken. 

Soon  after  new  commotions  took  place  in  this  un- 


BAJAZET. 


145 


happy  empire,  of  which  the  Turks  did  not  foil  to  take 
advantairp.  In  1327,  they  made  themselves  masters 
of  most  of  the  cities  on  the  Masander  ;  and  among  the 
rest,  of  the  strong  and  important  city  of  Prusa,  in 
Bitlrynia.  The  next  year,  hovveyer,  Othoman,  who 
may  justly  be  styled  the  founder  of  the  Turkish  mo- 
narchy, being  dead,  the  emperor  laid  hold  of  that  op- 
portunity to  recover  Nice,  and  some  other  important 
places,  from  the  infidels.  But  these  were  lost  the  year 
following,  together  with  Abydus  and  Nicomedia  :  and 
in  1330,  a  peace  was  concluded  upon  condition  that 
they  should  should  keep  all  their  conquests. 

This  peace  they  observed  no  longer  than  served  their 
own  purposes ;  for  new  commotions  breaking  out  in 
the  empire,  they  pursued  their  conquests,  and  by  the 
year  1357,  had  reduced  all  Asia.  They  next  passed 
the  Hellespont  under  the  conduct  of  Solyman,  the  son, 
or  as  others  will  have  it,  the  brother  of  Orchanes,  the 
successor  of  Othoman,  and  seized  on  a  strong  castle  on 
the  European  side. 

Soon  after  the  Turkish  sultan  died,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Amurath.  He  extended  the  conquests  of 
his  predecessors,  and  in  a  short  time  reduced  all  Thrace, 
making  Adrianople  the  seat  of  his  empire.  Amurath 
was  slain  by  treachery  in  a  little  time  after,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Bajazet.  This  prince  greatly 
enlarged  his  dominions  by  new  conquests. 

In  a  short  time  he  reduced  the  countries  of  Thessaly, 
Macedon,  Phocis,  Peloponnesus,  Mysia,  and  Bulgaria, 
driving  out  the. despots  or  petty  princes  who  ruled 
there.  Elated  with  his  frequent  victories,  he  began  to 
look  upon  the  Greek  emperor,  to  whom  nothing  was 
now  left  but  the  city  of  Constantinople  and  the  neigh- 
bouring country,  as  his  vassal.  Accordingly  he  sent 
him  an  arrogant  and  haughty  message,  commanding 
him  to  pay  a  yearly  tribute,  and  send  his  son  Manuel 
to  attend  him  in  his  military  expeditions.  This  de- 
mand the  emperor  was  obliged  to  comply  with,  but 
-died  soon  after,  in  the  year  1392. 

Manuel  no  sooner  heard  of  his  father's  death  than 
13 


146  RESIGNATION    OF    MANUEL. 

he  histened  to  Constantinople,  without  taking  leave  of 
the  sultan,  or  acquainting  him  with  the  reason  of  his 
sudden  departure.  At  this  Bajazet  was  so  highly  of- 
fended, that  he  passed  with  great  expedition  out  of 
Bithynia  into  Thrace,  ravaged  the  country  adjoining 
to  Constantinople,  and  at  last  invested"  the  city  itself 
both  by  sea  and  land.  In  this  extremity  Manuel  had 
recourse  to  the  western  princes ;  who  sent  him  an  army 
of  130,000  men,  under  the  command  of  Sigismund 
king  of  Hungary,  and  John  count  of  Nevors.  But 
though  the  western  troops  proved  at  first  successful, 
they  were  in  the  end  defeated  with  great  slaughter  by 
Bajazet,  who  then  returned  to  the  siege  with  greater 
vigour  than  ever. 

As  he  found,  however,  that  the  citizens  were  de- 
termined to  hold  out  to  the  last,  he  applied  to  John, 
the  son  of  Manuel's  elder  brother,  who  had  a  better 
title  to  the  crown  than  Manuel  himself.  With  him  he 
entered  into  a  private  agreement,  by  virtue  of  which 
Bajazet  was  to  place  John  upon  the  throne  of  Con- 
stantinople ;  on  the  other  hand,  John  was  to  deliver  up 
the  city  to  the  Turks,  and  remove  the  imperial  seat  to 
Peloponnesus,  which  the  sultan  promised  to  relinquish 
to  him  and  his  posterity. 

At  the  same  time  he  sent  deputies  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Constantinople,  offering  to  withdraw  his 
army,  and  cease  from  further  hostilities,  provided  they 
expelled  Manuel  and  placed  John  upon  the  throne. 
This  proposal  rent  the  city  into  two  factions ;  but 
Manuel  prevented  the  mischiefs  which  were  ready  to 
ensue,  by  a  voluntary  resignation,  upon  condition  that 
he  should  be  allowed  to  retire  to  whatever  place  he 
thought  proper  with  his  wife  and  children. 

With  this  condition  John  readily  complied;  and 
Manuel  having  received  him  into  the  city,  and  con- 
ducted him  to  the  palace,  set  sail  for  Venice.  From 
thence  he  went  to  the  courts  of  all  the  western  prin- 
ces to  solicit  their  assistance  against  the  Turks,  whose 
power  was  grown  formidable  to  all  Europe.  He  was 
everywhere  received  with  the  greatest  de(monstra- 


AMURATH    II.    OVERRUN'S   GREECE.  147 

tions  of  esteem,  and  promised  large  supplies  ;  all  Chris- 
tendom being  now  alarmed    at   the  progress  cf  th|* 
infidels. 

In  the  meantime  Bnjazet  did  not  fail  to  put  John 
in  mind  of  his  promise  ;  but  the  citizens  refusing  to 
comply  with  such  a  scandalous  treaty,  the  siege  was 
renewed,  and  the  city  assaulted  with  more  fury  than 
ever.  When  it  was  already  reduced  to  the  last  ex- 
tremity, news  was  brought  the  sultan  that  Tamerlane, 
the  victorious  Tartar,  having  over-run  all  the  East 
with  incredible  celerity,  had  now  turned  his  arms 
against  the  Turks,  and  was  preparing  to  break  into 
Syria.  Bajazet,  alarmed  at  the  danger  that  threatened 
him,  raised  the  siege  in  great  haste,  and  advanced 
against  Tamerlane  with  a  very  numerous  and  well-dis- 
ciplined army ;  but  the  Tartar  totally  defeated  and 
took  him  prisoner,  after  having  cut  most  of  his  men  in 
pieces  :  and  thus  Constantinople  was  preserved  for  the 
present. 

But  this  relief  was  of  short  duration.  In  1424  the 
city  was  again  besieged  by  Amurath  II.  The  in- 
habitants defended  themselves  with  great  bravery  ;  but 
must  in  the  end  have  submitted,  had  not  the  emperor 
prevailed  upon  the  prince  of  Caramania  to  countenance 
an  impostor  and  pretender  to  the  Turkish  throne. 
This  obliged  Amurath  to  raise  the  siege,  and  march 
with  all  his  forces  against  the  usurper,  whom  he  soon 
reduced.  Having  then  no  other  enemies  to  contend 
with,  he  entered  Macedon  at  the  head  of  a  powerful 
army  ;  and  having  ravaged  the  country  far  and  near, 
he  took  and  plundered  Thessalonica,  as  he  did  also 
most  of  the  cities  of  ^Etolia,  Phocia,  and  Boeotia. 
From  Greece  he  marched  into  Servia  ;  which  country 
he  soon  reduced.  He  next  broke  into  the  dominions 
of  the  king  of  Hungary,  and  besieged  the  strong  city 
of  Belgrade;  but  here  he  met  with  a  vigorous  repulse, 
no  fewer  than  15,000  Turks  being  slain  by  the  Chris- 
tians in  one  sally,  which  obliged  the  sultan  to  drop  the 
enterprise  and  retire. 

In  his  retreat  he  was  attacked  by  the  celebrated 


148  JOHN:  HUN.MADES. 

John  Hunniades,  who  cut  great  numbers  of  his  men 
fin  pieces,  and  obliged  the  rest  to  fly  with  precipita- 
tion. Not  long  after  he  gained  a  still  more  complete 
^victory  over  the  enemy  in  the  plains  of  Transylvania, 
with  the  loss  of  only  3000  of  his  own  men,  whereas 
20,000  of  the  Turks  were  killed  on  the  field  of  buttle, 
and  almost  an  equal  number  in  the  pursuit.  Amurath, 
who  was  then  at  Adrianople,  sent  an  army  into  Tran- 
sylvania far  more  numerous  than  the  former ;  but  they 
were  attended  with  no  better  success,  being  cut  off 
almost  to  a  man  by  the  brave  Hungarian.  He  gained 
several  other  victories  no  less  remarkable  ;  but  was  at 
last  entirely  defeated  in  1448 ;  and  with  this  defeat 
ended  all  hopes  of  preserving  the  Roman  empire. 

The  unhappy  emperor  was  now  obliged  to  pay  an 
annual  tribute  of  300,000  aspers  to  the  sultan  ;  and 
to  yield  up  to  him  some  strong  holds  which  he  still 
held  on  the  Euxine  Sea.  However,  as  he  doubted 
not  but  Amurath  would  soon  attempt  to  become  mas- 
ter of  the  city  itself,  he  renewed  the  union  between 
the  Greek  and  Latin  churches,  hoping  that  this  would 
induce  the  western  princes  to  assist  him  in  the  defence 
of  the  city  against  the  Turks.  This  union  produced 
great  disturbances,  which  the  emperor  did  not  long 
survive,  but  died  in  1443,  leaving  the  empire,  now 
confined  within  the  walls  of  Constantinople,  to  his 
brother  Cons-tantine. 

Amurath,  the  Turkish  sultan,  died  in  1450,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Mohammed.  In  the  beginning 
of  his  reign  he  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Constan- 
tine,  and  pretended  a  great  desire  to  live  in  friendship 
with  him  and  the  other  Christian  princes ;  but  no 
sooner  had  he  put  an  end  to  a  war  in  which  ho  was 
engaged  with  Ibrahim,  king  of  Caramania,  than  he 
built  a  strong  fort  on  the  European  side  of  the  Bospho- 
rus,  opposite  to  another  in  Asia  ;  in  both  of  which  he 
placed  strong  garrisons.  These  two  castles  com- 
manded the  straits  ;  and  the  former  bein?  but  five  miles 
from  the  city,  kept  it  in  a  manner  blocked  up.  This 
soon  produced  a  misunderstanding  between  him  and 


MOHAMMED  S    OPERATIONS. 


119 


the  emperor,  which  ended  in  the  siege  of  the  city. 
The  siege  commenced  on  the  6th  of  April,  145:1 
Mohammed's  numerous  forces  covering  the  plains  be- 
fore it  on  the  land-side,  and  a  fleet  of  three  hundred 
sail  blocking  it  up  by  sea. 

The  emperor,  however,  had  taken  care  to  secure 
the  haven,  in  which  were  three  large  ship-,  twenty 
small  ones,  and  a  great  number  of  galleys,  by  means 
of  a  chain  drawn  across  the  entrance.  Mohammed 
began  the  siege  by  planting  batteries  as  near  the  city 
as  he  could,  and  raising  mounts  in  several  places  as 
high  as  the  walls  themselves,  whence  the  besieged 
were  incessantly  galled  with  showers  of  arrows.  He 
had  in  his  camp  a  piece  of  ordnance  of  prodigious 
size,  which  is  said  to  have  carried  a  ball  of  one  hundred 
pounds  weight,  made  of  hard  black  stone  brought  from 
the  Euxine  Sea.  With  this  vast  piece  the  enemy  made 
several  breaches  in  the  walls;  which,  however,  were 
repaired  with  incredible  expedition  by  the  besieged. 
But  Mohammed,  the-  better  to  carry  on  the  siege, 
caused  new  levies  to  be  made  throughout  his  extensive 
dominions,  by  which  his  army  was  soon  increased  to 
near  400,000  men ;  while  the  garrison  consisted  only 
of  900'J  regular  troops,  viz.,  6000  Greeks,  and  3000 
Genoese  and  Venetians. 

As  the  enemy  continued  to  batter  the  walls  day  and 
night  without  intermission,  a  great  part  of  them  was 
at  last  beaten  down  ;  but  while  the  Turks  were  busy 
in  filling  up  the  ditch,  in  order  to  give  the  assault,  a 
new  wall  was  built.  This  threw  the  tyrant  into  a 
prodigious  rage,  which  was  greatly  heightened  when 
he  saw  his  whole  fleet  worsted  by  five  ships,  four  of 
which  were  laden  with  corn  from  Peloponnesus,  and 
the  others  with  all  manner  of  provisions  from  the  isle 
of  Chios.  These  opened  themselves  a  way  through 
the  whole  Turkish  fleet ;  and,  to  the  inexpressible 
joy  of  the  Christians  at  last  got  safe  into  the  harbour. 

The  Turks  attempted  ,«<>vpral  times  to  force  the 
haven  ;  but  all  their  efforts  proving  ineffectual,  Mo- 
hammed formed  a  design  of  conveying  eighty  galleys 


150  I'KOl'OSA!.-    MADE. 

ever  land  for  the  space  of  eight  miles  into  it.  This  he 
:,>d  by  means  of  certain  engines,  the  con- 
trivance of  a  renegado;  and  having  then  eillier  taken 
or  ,-unk  all  the  ships  contained  in  it,  lie  caused  a  bruise 
to  be  built  over  it,  with  surprising  expedition.  J!y 
this  means  tlie  city  was  laid  open  to  an  assault  from 
that  side  likewise. 

The  place  was  no\v  assaulted  on  all  sides ;  and 
mime  being  well  apprized  that  he  could  not  lung1 
hold  out  against  such  a  miglity  ileet,  and  so  numerous 
an  army,  sent  deputies  to  Mahommed,  offering  to  ac- 
knowledge himself  Ins  vassal,  by  paying  him  yearly 
what  tribute  he  should  think  proper  to  impose,  provi- 
ded he  raised  the  siege  and  withdrew.  The  tyrant 
answered  that  he  was  determined  at  all  events  to  be- 
come master  of  the  city  ;  but  if  the  emperor  delivered 
it  up  forthwith,  he  would  yield  up  to  him  Peloponnesus, 
and  other  provinces  to  his  brothers,  which  they  should 
enjoy  peaceably  as  his  friends  and  allies;  but  if  he 
held  out  to  the  last  extremity,  and  suffered  it  to  be 
taken  by  assault,  he  would  put  him  and  the  whole  no- 
bility to  the  sword,  abandon  the  city  to  be  plundered  by 
his  soldiers,  and  carry  the  inhabitants  into  captivity. 

This  condition  was  rashlv  l>y  the  emperor  ; 

who  thereby  involved  himself  and  all  his  subjects  in  the 
most  terrible  calamity.,  The  sie<ro  was  renewed  with 
more  vigour  than  ever,  and  continued  till  the  25th  of 
May  ;  when  a  report  being  spread  in  the  Turkish  camp 
that  a  mighty  army  was  advancing  in  full  march  to  the 
relief  of  the  city  under  the  conduct  of  the  celebrated 
John  Hunniades,  the  common  soldiers,  seized  with  a 
panic,  began  to  mutiny,  and  press  Mohammed  in  u 
tumultuous  manner  to  break  up  the  siege.  Nay,  they 
openly  threatened  him  with  death,  if  he  did  not  imme- 
diately abandon  the  enterprise  and  retire  from  before 
the  city,  which  they  despaired  of  being  able  to  reduce 
before  the  arrival  of  the  supposed  succours.  Moham- 
med was  upon  the  point  of  complying  with  their  de- 
mand, when  he  was  advised  by  Zagan,  a  Turkish  of- 
ficer of  great  intrepidity,  and  an  irreconcileable  enemy 


FINAL    ASSAULT    AND 


151 


to  the  Christian  name,  to  give  without  loss  of  time  a 
general  assault.  To  this  he  said  the  soldiery,  how- 
ever mutinous,  would  not  be  averse,  provided  the  sul- 
tan solemnly  promised  to  abandon  the  city  to  be  plun- 
dered by  them.  As  sucli  an  advice  best  suited  the 
humour  of  Mohammed,  he  readily  embraced  it;  and 
caused  a  proclamation  to  be  published  throughout  the 
camp,  declaring,  that  he  gave  up  to  his  soldiers  all  the 
wealth  of  that  opulent  city,  requiring  to  himself  only 
the  empty  houses. 

The  desire  of  plunder  soon  got  the  better  of  that 
fear  which  had  seized  the  Turkish  army;  and  they 
unanimously  desired  to  be  led  on  to  the  attack.  Here- 
upon Constantine  was  summoned  for  the  last  time  to 
deliver  up  the  city,  with  a  promise  of  his  life  and 
liberty  ;  but  to  this  he  answered  that  he  was  unaltera- 
bly determined  either  to  defend  the  city  or  to  perish 
with  it.  The  attack  began  at  three  in  the  morning 
on  Tuesday  the  29th  of  May  ;  such  troops  were  first 
employed  as  the  sultan  valued  least,  and  designed  them 
for  no  other  purpose  than  to  tire  the  Christians,  who 
made  a  prodigious  havock  of  that  disorderly  multi- 
tude. 

After  the  carnage  had  lasted  some  hours,  the  Jani- 
zaries and  other  fresh  troops  advanced  in  good  order, 
and  renewed  the  attack  with  incredible  vigour.  The 
Christians,  summoning  all  their  courage  and  resolu- 
tion, twice  repulsed  the  enemy :  but  being  in  the 
end  quite  spent,  they  were  no  longer  able  to  stand 
their  ground  ;  so  that  the  enemy  in  several  places 
broke  into  the  city.  In  the  meantime,  Justiniani,  the 
commander  of  the  Genoese,  and  a  select  body  of 
Greeks,  having  received  two  wounds,  one  in  the 
thigh,  and  the  other  in  the  hand,  was  so  disheartened, 
that  he  caused  himself  to  be  conveyed  to  Galata,  where 
he  soon  after  died  of  grief.  His  men,  dismayed  at 
the  sudden  flight  of  their  general,  immediately  quitted 
their  posts,  and  fled  in  the  utmost  confusion.  How- 
ever, the  emperor,  attended  with  a  few  of  the  most  re- 
solute among  the  nobility,  still  kept  his  post,  striving 


152 


CAPTURE    OF    CONSTANTINOPLE. 


with  unparalleled  resolution  to  oppose  the  multitude 
of  barbarians  that  now  broke  in  from  every  quarter. 
But  being  in  the  end  overpowered  with  numbers,  and 
seeing  all  his  friends  lie  dead  on  the  ground,  '•  What  1" 
(cried  he  aloud)  "  is  there  no  Christian  left  alive  to 
strike  oft"  my  head  ]" 

He  had  scarce  uttered  these  words,  when  one  of  the 
enemy,  nqt  knowing  him,  gave  him  a  deep  cut  across 
the  face  with  his  sabre,  and  at  the  same  time,  another 
coming  behind  him,  with  a  blow  on  the  back  part  of  his 


Capture  of  Constantinople. 

head, laid  him  dead  upon  the  ground.  Aftei  the  death 
of  the  emperor,  the  few  Christians  that  were  left  alive 
betook  themselves  to  flight,  and  the  Turks,  meeting-  with 
no  further  opposition,  entered  the  city,  which  they 
filled  with  blood  and  slaughter.  They  gave  no  quarter, 
but  put  all  they  met  to  the  sword,  without  distinction. 
Many  thousands  took  refuge  in  the  church  of  St. 
Sophia,  but  they  were  all  massacred  in  their  asylum 
by  the  enraged  barbarians ;  who,  prompted  by  their 


MOHAMMED'S  ENTRY.  153 

natural  cruelty,  the  desire  of  revenge,  and  love  of 
booty,  spared  no  place  nor  person.  Mo?t  of  the  nobility 
were,  by  the  sultan's  orders,  cut  off,  and  the  rest  kept 
for  purposes  more  grievous  than  death  itself.  .Many 
of  the  inhabitants,  among  whom  were  some  men  of 
great  learning,  found  means  to  make  their  escape  while 
the  Turks  were  busied  in  plundering  the  city.  These 
embarking  on  five  ships  then  in  the  harbour,  arrived 
safe  in  Italy  ;  where,  with  the  study  of  the  Greek 
tongue,  they  revived  the  liberal  sciences,  which  hid 
long  been  neglected  in  the  West.  After  the  expiration 
of  tlree  days,  Mohammed  commanded  his  e-oldiers 
to  forbear  all  further  hostilities  on  pain  of  death ; 
and  then  put  an  end  to  as  cruel  a  pillage  and  n 
ere  as  any  mentioned  iu  history.  The  next 
he  made  his  public  and  triumphal  entry  into  C 
tinople,  and  chose  it  for  the  seat  of  the  Turkish  empire, 
which  it  lias  continued  to  be  ever  since. 


XXII.  CHARLEMAGNE  CROWNED  EMPEROR  OF  THE  RO- 
MANS.— FOUNDATION  OF  TIIE  PAPAL  DOMINION. — TUB 
SUCCESSION  OF  THE  POPES. 

IN  the  year  800,  Charlemagne,  king  of  France,  be- 
ing crowned  emperor  of  the  Romans,  the  western 
empire,  the  image  of  that  of  ancient  Rome,  was 
revived,  Italy  renounced  all  political  connection  with 
Constantinople,  and  the  greater  part  of  it  fell  under 
the  dominion  of  Charlemagne. 

But  a  new  power  had  gradually  arisen  in  Homo, 
and  it  aspired  to  subdue  the  world'  by  other  methods 
than  by  force  of  arms.  This  was  the  authority  of 
tin-  pope,  or  bishop  of  Rome. 

From  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  he  was  the 
first  among  the  live  patriarchs  or  superior  bishops  of 
Christendom  ;  fur  the  circumstance  that  Rome  wag 
the  ancient  capital  of  the  kingdom,  and  according  to 
ira'iition,  the  last  dwelling-place  of 'the  Apostle  Peter, 
had  long  since  given  to  him,  as  pretended  successor 
of  Peter,  an  extensive  authority,  but  no  peculiar  ju- 
risdiction over  foreign  dioceses.  This,  however,  the 
popes  obtained  by  the  wealth  of  the  Roman  church, 
which  had  property  ih  most  other  dioceses,  by  arbi- 
tration in  ecclesiastical  contentions,  and  availing 
themselves  of  many  opportunities  favorable  to  the  ex- 
tension of  their  influence. 

A  provincial  synod  at  Sardica,  in  the  year  344, 
and  a  decree  of  the  emperor  Valentinian  III.,  in  445, 
had  acknowledged  the  bishop  of  Rome  as  primate, 
and  as  the  last  tribunal  of  appeal  from  the  other 
bishops;  but  even  in  the  West,  where  alone  these 
edicts  had  the  force  of  law,  the  measures  of  the 
popes,  until  the  eighth  century,  often  met  with  vio- 
lent opposition.  About  this  time,  several  circum- 
stances contributed  to  open  to  them  the  way  to 
supreme  control  over  all  churches.  Among  these 
(154) 


GROWTH    OF    PA  PA  I,    POWER.  155 

wer^ '  bing  new  churches  in  Germany,  which, 

like  those  of  Dritain  :it  an  earlier  peri.id.  being  founded 
by  their  IK'  ..  were  at   first  subject  to  their 

power ;  the  political  confusion,  and  the  change  of 
government  in  Italy  ami  France:  the  decretals  of 'the 
pretended  Isidore,  forged  between  ."v.O  and  850,  pro- 
bably by  l.enei.iict.  a  of  Mentz  (which,  in 
rimes  of  ignorance,  contributed  much  to  sup- 
port the  claims  of  the  Roman  church  to  exercise 
supreme  power.  ritious  letters  and  statutes 
of  former  bishops  of  Home,  dated  back  to  the  first 
centuries:)  the  schism  between  the  Eastern  and  West- 
ern churches,  which  bound  the  latter  still  more 
closely  to  the  popes,  as  their  leaders  ;  the  gradations 
of  ecclesiastical  rank,  every  where  introduced  by  the 
ambition  of  the  popes,  all  derived  and  gradually  de- 
scending from  them,  who  had  usurped  the  highest 
place  :  and  finally,  the  personal  superiority  of  some 
popes  over  their  contempor 

Leo  the  Great,  in  tke  fifth  century  ;  Gregory  I., 
called  the  great,  a  zealous,  good,  and  able  man,  in 
the  sixth  century  ;  and  Leo  III.,  who  crowned  Char- 
lemagne, in  the  eighth  century,  had  obtained  for  the 
papal  title  an  authority  which  the  patriarchs  of  the 
'Kast  could  not  attain,  and  against  which  the  power 
of  princes  availed  little.  The  story  of  the  female 
pope,  Johanna  or  Joan,  an  English  woman,  educated 
at  Mentz  and  Athens,  who  concealing  her  sex,  rose  by 
her  learning  and  talent  from  the  office  of  a  notary  at 
Rome  to  the  pap&l  chair,  but  after  a  reign  of  two 
years  and  a  half,  was  detected  by  becoming  a  mother, 
is  f.  fable  and  satire.  There  were,  indeed,  unworthy 
popes  during  the  middle  ages;  but,  after  the  brilliant 
victory  which  Nicholas  I.  (who  was  first  solemnly 
crowned)  obtained  over  Lothaire,  king  of  Lorraine, 
in  the  affair  of  a  divorce  in  805,  and  over  the  bishops 
of  Treves  and  Cologne,  whom  he  deposed  by  his  pa- 
pal authority ;  and  after  the  example  which  John 
VIII.  had  given,  in  875,  of  a  disposal  of  the  imperial 
crown,  which  he  conferred  on  Charles  the  Bald, — the 


156  GOOD    AND    BAD    TOPES. 

povrer  of  the  popes  could  receive  hut  little  injury 
from  the  violence  and  oorruptinn  which  prevailed  in 
the  papal  Bee  above  a  hundred  \ears,  beginning  from 
the  influence  of  tin;  Tuscan  counts  at  Koine,  under 
Sergius  111.,  in  904,  and  continued  by  the  wicked  and 
licentious  favorites  and  relations  of  the  infamous 
princesses  Theodora  and  Marozia  (one  of  whom,  John 
XII.,  in  '.),"><),  while  Imt  eighteen  years  old,  and  an- 
other, Benedict  IX.,  in  10;];'..  a  buy  of  twelve  years, 
obtained  the  dignit}'  of  pope,)  and  even  from  the 
scandalous  circumstance  that,  in  1045,  three  popes, 
chosen  by  means  of  bribery,  were  living  together  in 
Rome.  The  rudeness  of  the  age  concealed  the  scau- 
dal  of  such  things. 

In  the  midst  of  all  this  darkness,  a  ray  of  light 
appears  in  the  reign  of  the  excellent  Sylvester  II., 
between  999  and  1003,  who  was  one  of  the  most 
learned  men  of  his  time,  and  whom  the  world  re- 
garded as  a  magician.  The  troubles  arising  during 
the  decline  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty  in  France 
and  Germany  ottered  an  extensive  and  continually 
enlarging  field  of  action  to  the  ambition  of  the  popes; 
and  their  dignity  and  independence  of  the  nobles 
and  people  of  Rome,  which  they  had  often  lost  during 
the  contentions  of  factions,  were;  regained  by  the  con- 
stitution of  Nicholas  II.,  in  10.V.I,  placing  the  right 
of  election  to  the  papal  chair  in  the  hands  of  the 
cardinals,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  laity. 

After  this,  a  succession  of  good  rulers,  of  great 
talents  and  excellent  character,  sat  upon  what  was 
then  the  first  throne  in  Christendom  ; — Gregory  VII, 
who  surpassed  them  all  in  spirit  and  in  power,  and 
•who  began  to  carry  through  with  wonderful  perseve- 
rance, the  project  of  universal  dominion  :  Urban  II., 
•who  was  several  times  driven  from  Home  by  the  anti- 
pope,  Clement  III.,  but  who,  from  1088  to  1099, 
ruled  with  extensive  influence  and  extraordinary 
vigor ;  Alexander  III.,  who,  during  his  reign,  be- 
tween 1160  and  1181,  survived  two  rivals,  and  over- 
came a  third,  who  brought  the  kings  of  England  and 


AGENTS  OF  THE  PAPACY.  157 

Scotland  to  unconditional  obedience  in  religious  mat- 
ters, who  made  the  Emperor  Frederic  I.  hold  his  stir 
rup,  and  confirmed  the  system  of  the  election  of  popes; 
and   Innocent  III.,   whose  rei.^n,  between   111  - 
1216,  raised  the   papal   see  to   the  highest  degree  of 
power  and  dignity.     What  the  popes  in   earlier  times 
had  only  attempted  in  peculiar  circumstances,  these 
great   men,    so  superior  to  their  age,   made  tL 
tied  usage,  by  a   regular   series  of  bold  usurpations 
and  persevering  efforts.     They  united  the  clei 
•western    and  central  Eur  ;  to  the  papal  see, 

by   the  introduction  of  a  new  form  of  oath,  by  the 
law  of  celibacy,  and  by  the  law  of  investiture,  which 
broke    the    union    of   bishops    with    their   tei. 
princes,  and  under   Innocent  III.,  w:.-  a  to  a 

power  of  disposing,  at  pleasure,  of  all  the  iii 
benefices  of  the  church.     By  means  uf  their   i 
and  nuncios,  they  obtained  tin)  bish»  >f  de- 

ciding in  ecclesiastical  and  matrimonial  ali'airs.  and 
the  exclusive  right  of  canonization  ;  und  they  thus 
made  the  popes  the  sole  fountain  of  ecclesiastical 
dignity  and  power  in  western  Christendom.  By 
eventually  assuming  the  sole  rig;.:  .  ening 

councils  and  national  syi.  •  decrees  1 

valid  only  by  being  ratified  by  the  pope,)  and  by 
maintaining,  with  more  and  more  boldness,  their 
claims  to  infallibility,  they  at  length  obtained  com 
plete  dominion  over  the  church.  Of  the  orders  of 
monks,  especially  of  the  mendicant  orders,  they 
created  a  spiritual  army,  who,  having  in  their  hands 
the  inquisition,  the  right  of  hearing  confessions,  and 
of  preaching,  together  with  the  public  superintendence 
of  schools  and  universities,  became  the  most  useful 
instrument  of  their  policy,  and  one  of  the  strongest 
supports  of  their  power. 

The  success  of  these  advances  towards  unlimited 
spiritual  dominion,  gave  them  e»urage  to  strive  also 
after  temporal  power.  But  the  claims  of  the  popes 
to  worldly  dominion  are  of  much  later  origin  than 
the  histories  of  the  court  of  Home  have  maintained 
14 


158  POPES  DEPOSE  KINGS. 

Constantino  the  Great  gave  them  merely  some  build* 
ings  and  estates  in  and  near  Rome.  By  the  gift  of 
Pepin,  the  pope  obtained  merely  the  dominium  ntile, 
that  is,  the  use  of  lands  intrusted  to  him.  In  this 
•way  he  became,  in  a  manner,  a  vassal  of  the  Frank- 
ish  kings,  and  afterwards  of  the  German  emperors, 
•who  exercised,  without  opposition,  the  right  of  sove- 
reignty over  the  papal  dominions,  and,  until  the 
twelfth  century,  suffered  no  election  of  pope  to  take 
place  without  their  ratification.  Innocent  III.,  first 
established  the  rule  that  Rome,  the  Marches,  and  the 
hereditary  possessions  of  Matilda,  should  do  him  ho- 
mage, as  lord  paramount,  in  1198;  and  thus  van- 
ished the  last  shadow  of  the  pOAver  of  the  emperors 
over  Rome  and  the  pope. 

Favorable  circumstances  had  already  made  several 
kingdoms  tributary  to  the  papal  see.  England,  from  the 
time  of  its  conversion  to  Christianity,  was  thus  depen- 
dent upon  them  ;  in  like  manner,  Poland  and  Hun- 
gary, from  the  eleventh  century,  Bulgaria  and  Ara- 
gon,  from  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth,  and  the 
kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  (whose  Norman  kings 
had  been  vassals  of  the  pope,)  from  1265,  when  Cle- 
ment IV.  gave  it  to  the  house  of  Anjou  through 
hatred  towards  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen.  Even 
the  East  would  have  fallen  under  the  power  of  Rome, 
if  the  success  of  the  crusades  (which  had  given  rise 
in  the  West  to  much  confusion  in  regard  to  the  rights 
of  citizens  and  private  property,  and  thereby  pro- 
moted the  influence  of  the  pope)  had  been  less 
transitory.  Innocent  III.  dared  to  depose  and  pro- 
claim kings,  as,  for  instance,  John  of  England, 
and  to  threaten  the  whole  world  with  excommu- 
nication. The  emperor  Otho  IV.  called  himself 
such  by  the  grace  of  God  and  of  the  pope.  Kings 
vrere  called  "  sons  of  the  pope  ;"  and  the  fear  of 
the  terrible  consequences  of  the  interdict,  which 
they  pronounced,  as  vicars  of  Christ,  upon  disobe- 
dient princes  and  their  kingdoms,  the  rebellious 
spirit  of  the  barons,  the  ill-regulated  constitution  of 


FRANCE  GOVERNS  THE  POPE.         159 

States,  and  the  groat  want  of  laws,  subjected  the 
rulers  of  those  times  to  the  authority  of  a  lord,  whose 
court  was  the  cradle  of  modern  politics,  and  whose 
power  and  influence  were  irresistible,  because  sup- 
ported by  public  opinion  and  by  superstition.  It  was 
with  reason,  then,  that  popery,  at  that  time,  was 
called  a  "  universal  monarchy  ;"  the  cardinals  being 
counsellors ;  the  legates  in  the  different  kingdoms  of 
Europe,  viceroys  ;  the  archbishops  and  bishops,  go- 
vernors and  lieutenant-governors  ;  tin-  priests,  minis- 
ters of  police  and  of  the  finances  ;  and  the  religious 
orders,  the  standing  armu-s  of  the  Hainan  p 
who  thus  had  al  rvants  of  differ- 

ent ranks  scatteivd  am* ing  the  different  nations,  en- 
tirely devoted  to  his  interest,  and  powerful  by  the  arms 
of  religion  and  fanaticism.  In  fact,  this  priestly  go- 
vernment did  good  by  accustoming  the  rude  princes 
and  people  to  laws  and  Christian  manners  ;  and  at  a 
time  when  rights  were  first  beginning  to  be  under 
stood,  its  inconsistency  with  true  independence  was 
not  felt. 

France  alone,  which  had  acquired  more  consis- 
tency and  power  than  the  other  monarchies  of  Eu- 
rope, by  the  subjugation  of  the  great  vassals,  and  the 
reduction  of  their  territories  under  the  royal  govern- 
ment, first  successfully  resisted  the  popes.  In  Philip 
the  Fair,  Boniface  VIII.,  one  of  the  boldest  and  ablest 
popes,  found  a  master,  and  his  successors,  during 
their  residence  at  Avignon,  between  1306,  and  1376, 
remained  under  French  influence.  The  independence 
of  the  popes  visibly  suffered  from  the  circumstance 
that  they  were  now  bound  to  a  particular  political 
party,  though  they  continued  to  exercise,  over  all  the 
Christian  countries  of  the  West,  the  power  which 
their  arts  and  perseverance  had  obtained.  Their  dig- 
nity sunk  still  lower  when,  in  1378,  two  rival  popes 
appeared — the  Italian,  Urban  VI.,  and  a  count  of 
Geneva,  chosen  by  the  French  cardinals,  who  took 
the  name  of  "  Clement  VII."  Europe  was  divided  by 
their  quarrel,  the  Italian  being  supported  by  Italy, 


160 


ABUSES    OF    THE    CHURCH. 


Germany,  England,  and  the  northern  kingdoms;  the 
French  pope  by  Franco,  Spain,  Savoy,  Lorraine,  and 
Scotland  ;  and  the  schism  long  remained. 

The  public  sale  of  offices,  the  shameful  extortions 
and  the  low  artifices,  which  most  of  these  rival  popes 
used  against  each  other,  gave  rise,  in  England 
and  Bohemia,  to  much  complaint,  and  to  demands 


John  Huss. 

for  a  reform  in  the  state  of  the  church.  The  council 
of  Constance  had,  indeed,  succeeded  in  putting  an 
end  to  the  great  schism,  by  deposing  both  of  the 
rivals;  but  pope  Martin  V.,  who  was  chosen,  in  1417, 
in  their  place,  did  not  correct  the  abuses  which  had 
grown  up  under  his  pri'd'Mvssors,  and  even  the  most 
express  decrees  for  reform,  passed  by  the  council  of 
Basle,  were  rendered  nugatory  by  the  artifices  and 


EXTORTION  OF    THE    POPES.  161 

the  perseverance  of  Eugene  IV..  of  the  house  of  Ur- 
Bmi,  who  was  pope  between  14-".  1  and  1477.  He  had 
gained  the  friendship  of  Fi-.i;;-- ».  in  1-Kis,  by  the  prag- 
matic sanction,  which  laid  the  foundation  of  the  free- 
dom of  the  Galilean  church  ;  and  the  negotiations  of 
^Eneas  Sylvius,  ambassador  of  Frederic  III.,  with 
him  and  his  su  •  Ilont  Nicholas  V.,  a 

friend  to  ancient  literature,  and  the  protector  of  the 
learned  exiles  from  Greece,  effected  the  concordats 
of  Vienna,  in  144S.  Why  the  grievances  of  the  Ger- 
man nation  were  so  little  remedied  by  this  instru- 
ment, while  the  interests  of  the  pope  were  carefully 
attended  to.  the  German  ]  .  :n  the  eloquence 

of  the  canning  negotiator  JEneas  Sylvius  had  induced 
to  accept  ir.  i  when  he  was  chosen  car- 

dinal, and,  in  1458,  pope,  under  the  name  of  "  Pius 
II."  In  this  concordats,  t!  '.tained  the  con- 

firmation of  the  annates,  of  the  right  of  ratifying  the 
election  of  prelates,  and  among  many  other  privi- 
leges, that  of  th  lied,  or  the 
right  of  conferring  1  \vhich  they  exercised 
alternately  with  the  f  nt  on  the  occurrence 
of  vacancies,  but  on  partirulai-  months,  of"  which  sis 
in  every  year  were  reserved  to  the  pope.  By  a  gene- 
ral extension  of  the  privilege,  to  which,  under  differ- 
ent  pretences,  the  other  Christian  kingdoms  were 
obliged  to  submit,  the  popes,  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, had  gone  so  far,  that  full  half  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical revenues  of  the  West  flowed  into  their  coffers, 
under  various  pretences.  Assistance  against  the 
Turks  was  the  most  common  pretext ;  but  rarely  were 
any  of  the  immense  sums  thus  collected  so  employed. 
It  was  necessary  to  buy  the  favor  of  the  parties  in 
Rome,  among  which  the  old  families  of  Colonna  and 
Ursini  had  long  been  rivals ;  and  so  much  was  spent 
on  their  relations,  that  very  little  remained  for  the 
common  good  of  Christendom.  In  care  for  his  family, 
no  pope  ever  surpassed  Alexander  VI.,  between  1492 
and  1503,  whose  policy  and  whose  private  life  were 
equally  strangers  to  morality  and  religion.  His  sue- 
14* 


162  LEO  X. 

ccssor,  Julius  II.  between  1503  and  1-313,  employed 
all  bis  powers  in  politics,  and  in  a  war  with  France, 
in  which  he  commanded  his  own  army,  but  was 
obliged  to  fly  before  Bayard.  Fortunately  for  him 
and  for  his  successor,  Leo  X.,  Maximilian  I.  was  pre- 
\  vented  by  circumstances,  and  finally  by  death,  from 


/ 


Leo  Tenth. 

uniting  upon  his  own  head  the  papal  and  imperial 
crowns.  The  circumstance  that  Austria,  France,  and 
Spain  were  fighting  for  Lombardy  and  Xaples,  and, 
therefore,  sought  alternately  the  favor  of  the  pope, 
had  caused  the  latter  to  raise  anew  in  political  impor- 
tance towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  ;  but 
the  spirit  of  the  times  was  acquiring  an  irresistible 
strength,  and  the  policy  of  Leo  X.  was  of  no  avail 


THE    REFORMATION". 


163 


against  it.     Luther,  Zuinjliu?.  and  Calvin  were  the 
heralds  of   an  opposition   which    tore   almost   half 


John  Calvin. 

of  the  West  from  the  popes,  while  the  policy  of 
Charles  V.  was  at  the  same  time  diminishing  their 
power. 

What  the  ages  of  ignorance  had  allowed  to  the 
pope,  the  council  of  Trent,  indeed,  now  ratified  ;  and 
the  society  of  the  Jesuits  came  forward  as  the  guards 
of  his  throne,  striving  to  erase  all  traces  of  the  refor- 
mation in  the  States  which  had  remained  Catholic, 
and  to  regain  by  missions  among  the  heathen  what 
had  been  lost  in  Europe  :  yet  neither  this  new  sup- 
port, nor  the  policy  of  artful  popes,  such  as  Clement 
VII.,  between  1523  and  1534  (whom  Charles  of  Bour 


164  DECLINE    OF    THE    PAPAL    POWER. 

bon,  the  general  of  the  Emperor,  drove,  in  1527,  into 
thr  eastle  of  St.  Angdo.  1  ami  Paul  III.,  between 
1">.'M  and  l.">l',t,  who  gained  for  his  family  I'ar.na  and 
./.a  :  nor  the  monkish  devotion  of  Paul  IV.,  be- 
t\vtvn  I.VM  and  l.Vt',1;  nor  th.'  tion  of  Pius 

IV..  between    lf>.V.)   and    I  !cd  to 

grunt  the  cup  to  the  Bohemian  Hussites;  nor  the 
severity  of  Pius  A".,  between  I'H'.M  and  ]~>~'2  (who  of- 
fended both  princes  and  people  by  his  bull  In 
Jhnnini,  worthy  of  liis  previous  character  as  a  proud 
Dominican,  and  furious  per.-eeutor  of  beivties,  al- 
though his  severe  austerity  obtained  him  the  honor 
of  eanoniy.ation  :)  still  less  the  useful  activity  of  (ire- 
gory  X11I.,  between  ]~>7l2  and  b"s,">.  wlio  iravt^  to  the 
world  the  amended  calemlar  (Ure^-»rian  ;)  the  magna- 
nimity and  wisdom  <  i  ir>S,"i  and 
the  good  Fortune  of  ('lenient  VIII.,  (Aldobran- 
dini.)  between  \'>\}'2  and  lt't!">.  who,  in  1597,  added 
Ferrara  to  :  of  the  (."nurd:  :  the  learni 
I'rban  Vlll..  between  !(>•_:.",  and  li'!  !.  W!M  added  I'r- 
bino  to  his  dominions,  and  obliged  (Jalileo  to  abjure 
bis  doctrine  of  the  motion  of  the  earth  round  the 
sun, — could  res!  id  authority  of  the  papal 
throne. 

In  vain  did  tli>  employ  the  language 

of  (Jregory  VII.  and  .Inin.tvnt  111.;  even  in  Catholic 
States,  the  distinction  iVtween  ecclesiastical  and  po- 
litical affairs  had  been  perceived  so  clearly,  that  the 
influence  of  the  popes  upon  the  latter  was  now  very 
limited.  Since  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
no  German  emperor  had  been  crowned  by  a  pope. 
The  princes,  who  hail  learned  his  policy,  withdrew 
themselves  from  his  authority.  The  national  churches 
obtained  their  freedom,  in  spite  of  all  opposition,  and 
the  peace  of  Westphalia,  which  the  papal  see  never 
acknowledged,  gave  public  legality,  guarantied  by  all 
the  powers  of  Kurope.  to  a  svMeni  of  toleration  which 
was  in  direct  contradiction  to  the  papal  doctrines. 
Under  such  circumstances,  the  question  no  longei 
was,  how  to  extend  the  papal  authority,  but  how  to 


MISFORTUNES    OF    THE    POPES.  1G5 

prevent  its  utter  destruction  ;  and  the  vicar  of  Christ, 
who,  when  he  i  .  servant  of  ser- 

vants, was  lord  of  lords,  was  obliged  to  play  the  part 
of  a  suppliant,  who  claims  compassion  and  toleration, 
rather  thai:  ,  took  from 

the  popes  a  considerable    part   of  the   Nether! 
their  bulls  were  no  longer  of  avail,  beyond  the  States 
of  the  Church,  without  the  consent  of  tin- 
am!  the  revenues  from  foreign  kingdoms  grew  smaller 
and  smaller.     It  :iiany, 

..nd  the  excellent 

men   who  il  chair   in    tlr 

tc'-nth  i-fntiiry,  th<-  l'-t;r:i«-o   I/imbertini    from  1" 
and    the    e  i    <!anj:anelli,    from 

to  1774,  were  fo:  lilt  of  their  pre- 

:<>n   and   personal   merit,  the   esteem  which  the 
other  :!itily  ciai: 

Still  greater  i:  .non  their 

\  1..  from  i77.".    to  17  Til.,  L-OO  to 

The  first,  after  a  bitter  experience  of  t! 
the  death   of  .! 

II.  had  inspired  him  with  new  hopes,  was  witness  of 

the    revolution,    which    tore   from 'him    the    French 

church,    and   deprived  him    of    hi.s   dominions.     The 

other  was:  !  freedom,  and  the 

possession  of  his  il'n:  :i  equivocal 

concordate    with   Bonapar;  1,  and  by   much 

.;al   humiliation,   an'!    lost   tli'T  tin  in 

H"  owed   his  restoration,  in   1814,  not  to  the 

excommunication  which   he   had   pronounced  against 

•.•on,   but  to   a   coalition  of   temporal    |  r 
amon^  whom   were  two  heretics   (the    English    and 

isrnatic   'the   K 

theless,  he  not  only  restored  the  inquisition,  the 
order  of  tl.  religious  orders,  but 

advanced  claims   and   principles  entirely  opp1 
the  ideas    and   resolutions  of  his  liberator.1-.     Tli'-  re- 
turn of  this  pope  to  the   spirit  of  the  eleventh   and 
twelfth  centuries  agreed  with  what  was  always  the 


166  MENTAL  RESERVATION  OF  THE  POPES. 

principal  maxim  of  the  Roman  court,  "  never  to  give 
up  the  slightest  of  its  claims,  but  to  wait  only  for  op- 


Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

portunities."  When  the  archives  of  the  popes  were 
carried  to  Paris,  in  1809,  among  other  surprising 
things,  a  practice  came  to  light  which  the  popes  had, 
of  declaring  null  and  void,  by  secret  mental  reserva- 


LIBERAL  CONCESSIONS  OF  PIUS  IX.  167 

tion,  the  contracts  which  were  made  in  public.  Thua 
Alexander  VII.,  February  18,  1664,  made  such  a 
reservation  with  regard  to  the  treaty  of  Pisa,  of  the 
12th  of  the  same  month,  and  Clement  XIII.,  Septem- 
ber 3,  1764,  with  regard  to  the  banishment  of  the 
Jesuits  from  France.  Pius  VII.  openly  declared 
against  the  tolerance  of  the  philosophic  sects,  against 
Bible  societies,  and  translations  of  the  Bible. 

Pius  VII.   w;-\-  •'!    by   Leo  XII.,  who,   in 

1829,  gave  place  to  Pius  VIII.  Upon  his  death,  Gre- 
gory XVI.  was  elected,  and  in  1847,  he  was  succeeded 
by  John  de  Ferrati,  under  the  title  of  Pius  IX., 
whose  reign  was  destined  to  be  signalized  by  many 
astonishing  events. 


XXIII.  LIBERAL  CONCESSIONS  OF  Pics  IX. — REAC- 
TIONARY MEASURES. — REVOLUTION. — FLIGHT  OF  THE 
POPE. — ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  REPUBLIC. — SIEGE 
OF  ROME  RT  THE  FRENCH. — CAPITULATION  OF  THE 
CITY  AND  RESTORATION  OF  THE  POPE. 

FOR  many  years  before  the  accession  of  Pius  IX. 
there  had  existed  an  extensive  and  powerful  organi- 
zation of  liberals  throughout  Italy.  Their  objects 
were  the  union  of  the  Italian  States,  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  republican  institutions.  They  had  made 
numerous  attempts  at  revolution  but  foreign  bayonets 
had  always  been  successfully  employed  to  crush 
them,  and  many  of  their  noblest  spirits  had  become 
martyrs  to  their  cause.  They  believed  Pius  IX.  was 
favorably  disposed  towards  them,  and  accordingly 
hailed  his  accession  to  the  papal  see  with  exultation. 
The  new  pope  made  some  gratifying  concessions  to 
the  liberal  spirit  which  served  to  raise  the  popular 
expectations.  Rome  needed  many  reforms,  and  it 


REACTIONARY    MEAS.I.T.E5. 


168 

was  believed  that  Pius  IX.  was  disposed  to  becomfl 
the  chief  of  the  reform  party. 


Pope  Pius  IX. 


Suddenly,  however,  the  pope  changed  his  policy. 
He  had  granted  the  people  a  representative  assem- 
bly ;  but  he  now  refused  them  the  grand  want — the 
exclusion  of  the  priests  from  a  controlling  influence 
in  the  temporal  government.  The  pope  was  then  de- 
nounced as  a  timid  reactionary,  and  in  the  autumn 
of  1848,  signs  of  an  approaching  revolution  were 
manifest  in  Rome. 

On  the  15th  of  November,  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties was  to  open  at  one  o'clock,  and  a  large  crowd 
•was  consequently  assembled  around  the  gateway  of 
the  Palazzo  della  Cancellaria.  When  Count  Rossi, 


IXSURRFCTIOX  AT  ROME.  169 

the  prince.  >ted.     The 

haughtv  000  them  with    an    exp; 
of  .scorn,    AvluToiipun    a    man    rr.shed    forward    and 

plung  dying  man  was 

taken  i  arciinal  (ju'/.zoli, 

and  in  live  .  xpin-d.     Tlii.s     .                  ;;rs  to 

have    I  Stated.     But   many   of    the  Ko- 

man>  applauded    the    murderer. 

Group  Idiers  and  eiti;:en>,  with  lighted 

torche-.  . '.ng  the  chorus  along  the 
streets. 

"  Bencilftto  quella  mano 

:;aM." 

tyrant." 

The  death  of  Ru-si  was  the  sijrr.nl  for  an  insurrec- 
tion, fur  which    ll'.iii:e  was   already  predisposed.     At 
half-past   ten,  A.  M.,  on  the    16th,  a   ^atiii'i-in^ 
in   the   great  Pia?./.:i  del    Popu^ 

mena-.-inj:  r!iar;i  in   the   leading 

streets.     The  Civic  Guards  and   I  the  line,  in 

fragmentnr;  .led  with  the  people  ;  and 

the  c;.  •  uniform  had   hitherto   been  in- 

;'.:e  popul:  .w  for 

the  tiiv<t  tii:.-  with  the  ni'/:>.     From 

the   t'.'i1  be    Pincian    Hill    th"    .-;"•. 'tutor  could 

count  nearly  20,000  It'. mans,  in  tinva-.i'i.inn;  groups, 
and  mostly  armed.  Printed  pnpi-rs  were  banded 
eagerly  about,  all  having  the  same  purport,  and  con- 
tainii,.  wing  "  1'umlainental  Points:"  1.  Pro- 

mulgation and  full  adoption  of  Italian  nationality. 
2.  Co;.  and  reali- 

zation of  the  Federal  Pact.  3.  Iti-ali/.ation  of  the 
vote  for  the  war  of  independence  given  in  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies.  4.  Adoption,  in  its  integrity,  of  the 
Programme  Mamiani,  5th  June.  5.  Ministers  who 
have  public  confidence — Mamiani,  Sterbini,  Cam- 
bello,  Saliceti,  Fusconi,  Lunati,  Sereni,  Galletti." 

The  pope  announced  that  he  would  not  brook  dic- 
tation ;  whereupon,  the  armed  mob  attacked  the  pa- 
15 


FLIGHT   OT   THE    POPE.  171 

lace,  and  compelled  Pius  to  yield  the  appointment  of 
a  popular  mini- 

On  receiving  intelligence  of  these  events,  the  Eng- 
lish admire  r  to  Civita  Yeccbia  to  re- 
ceive the  pope,  should  he  be  a  fugitive  ;  and  the 
French  government  hastily  despatched  three  steam- 
frigate?,  with  a  force  of  3500  men,  to  protect  the  pon- 
tiff. He  does  not  appear,  however,  to  have  been  ex- 
posed to  any  personal  danger ;  but  being  resolved 
not  to  give  even  the  implied  sanction  of  his  presence 
to  the  ministry  imposed  upon  him  by  the  populace, 
he  committed  the  fatal  imprudence  of  quitting  his 
dominions  the  signal 
for  t:  >n  of  his  cardinals.  The  veteran, 
Lambruschtni,  es  the  uniform  of  a  dr.. 
while  Pius  fled  in  the  less  apj.r 

vant,  to  the  Bavarian  ambassador,  and  crossing  the 
frontier,  arrives   .  King  of  Naples 

received  him  with  worshipful  h<  . 

Dei  .-an  ministry  to 

solicit  the  pope'-  were   not  even 

allowed  to  frontier.    As  the  pon- 

tiff persisted  in  .   the  ministry  to  be  illegal, 

and  a  --:-d  by 

both  Chambers.  .ie  pope  of 

temporal  power,  and  d  .  "f  a  "Pro- 

vison:.  -rying 

on  the  government.  that  "  The  com- 

a  shall  discontinue  its  functions  on  the  return 
of  the  sovereign  pontiff,  or  when  he  shall  himself  ap- 
point, according  to  constitutional  forms,  a  sul  - 
of  his   own   selection."     Neither  of  these  conditions 
being  fulfilled,  an  a  :  .:  the  instance  of 

the  Junta,  and  in  compliance  with  the  demands  of  the 
people,  convoki  --sembly  for  the 

Rom;..  Chambers  were  then  dissolved 

on  the  29th  of  December. 

t  evening,  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo, 
by  the  consecutive  du  :  101  great  gun?,  an- 

nounced to  this  metropolis  and  the  world  in  general, 


172 


OVERTHROW    OF    THE    PAPAL    BY.VASTV. 


that  the   dynasty  which   had   reigned  over  Rome  for 
1048  years  had   c<>me   to   a  close,  ami  a  now  g 
ment  was  to  bo  called  into  bein^   by  the   mandate  of 
the  whole  population  assembled  in  a  constituent  re- 
lative  body  by  universal  The  ;;reat 
bell  of  the  capitol,  which  only  tolls  fur  the  death  of  a 
pealed  solemnly.     It  was   exactly  on  tl 
member,    (the  fatal  night  of  the  flight  «l'  I'io 
. >   that,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord   800,   Charle- 
magne arrived  in  Home  to  be  crowned  on  Cln-istmas 
day  of  that  year,  by  Leo  III.,  and  to  institu. 


Joseph  Mazzini. 

formally  corroborate  the  donation  of  Pepin,  by  the 
erection  of  the  papal  sovereignty. 

The   Constituent  Assembly   comprised  many  able 


FRENCH  EXPEDITION'  AGAINST  ROME.  173 

members,  and  its  proceedings  were  dignified  and  con- 
sistently liberal.  As  soon  as  it  was  ascertained  that 
the  pope  not  only  would  not  return,  but  denounced 
the  movement  of  the  people,  the  Assembly  proceeded 
to  elect  an  executive  Triumvirate.  The  wise  and  elo- 
quent Joseph  Mazzini  was  the  most  active  and  influ- 
ential of  the  three  men  who  exercised  the  executive 
power.  The  brave  and  patriotic  General  Avezzana 
was  his  valuable  aid.  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte, 
treacherous  to  the  principles  of  the  French  Bepublie, 
resolved  to  send  an  expedition  to  crush  the  Roman 
patriots  and  restore  the  pope's  temporal  authority. 
On  the  22d  of  April,  1S49,  a  considerable  French 
force,  under  General  Oudinot,  sailed  for  Italv,  and 
after  landing  at  Civita  Vecchia,  marched  toward 
Rome.  The  troops  had  hitherto  been  kept  in 
ranee  of  the  object  of  the  expedition.  The  p 
now  issued  a  proclamation  to  them,  stating  ''that 
the  government,  being  resolved  to  maintain  in  all 
quarters  of  the  globe  their  old  and  legitimate  influ- 
ence, would  not  allow  the  destinies  of  the  Italian 
people  to  be  at  the  mercy  of  a  foreign  power,  or  a 
part)-  which  is  but  a  minority." 

The  Romans  knew  that  the  statement  of  the  French 
general  was  entirely  unfounded.  They  acted  with  a 
resolution  worthy  their  ancestors.  On  the  24th  of 
April,  the  Constituent  Assembly  declared  itself  per- 
manent— passed  a  resolution  denouncing  as  a  traitor 
any  deputy  who  should  desert  his  post — despatched  a 
protest  to  General  Oudinot,  and  issued  an  address  to 
the  people.  The  members  then  declared  that,  while 
willing  to  receive  the  pope  as  head  of  the  church, 
they  had  discarded  his  temporal  sway.  At  the  same 
time,  they  called  upon  the  lately  constituted  Trium- 
virate to  assist  them  in  supporting  the  declaration. 
The  people  responded  to  the  sentiments  of  their 
leaders.  Men  of  all  classes  armed  themselves,  pri- 
vate houses  were  fortified,  barricades  thrown  up, 
and  every  means  taken  to  inspire  a  spirit  of  patriotic 
enthusiasm.  "  On  the  first  sound  of  the  alarm-bell," 
15* 


174  REPULSE  OF  THE  FRENCH. 

says  one  of  the  placards,  "  the  holy  sacrament  will 
be  exposed  in  the  principal  churches,  to  implore  the 
safety  of  Rome  and  the  triumph  of  the  good  cause." 

On  the  30th  of  April,  the  French  arrived  before  the 
city.  They  found  the  citizen  soldiery,  under  General 
Garibaldi,  ready  to  receive  them.  While  the  French 
•were  planting  their  batteries  and  preparing  for  an 
assault,  shuts  -were  Ihvd  from  the  wall  and  adjacent 
.  At  halt-past  ten,  the  attack  commenced  at 
the  Porta  Cavalleg-k-ri  ;  but  so  spirited  was  the  re- 
sistance, that  in  less  than  two  hours,  Oudiuot's  van- 
guard was  driven  hack.  At  that  moment,  a  body  of 
Roman  troops,  was  thrown  toward  St.  Paul's  Church, 
while  another  body  of  armed  citizens,  carrying  a  red 
flag,  hurried  to  defend  the  Porta  ('avalleggieri.  By 
noon,  the  French  had  posted  their  artillery  upon  a 
:i  ;  but  Garibaldi  attacked  them  at  different 
points.  A  conflict  with  cannon,  musketry,  and  rock- 
ets took  place.  At  one  o'clock,  the  assailants  were 
silenced.  The  Triumvirate  immediately  published 
the  following  proclamation  : 

"  Romans,  our  honour  is  safe  ;  God  and  our  mus- 
kets will  do  the  rest — energy  and  order.  Be  worthy 
of  your  fathers.  Let  no  voice  spread  alarming  news. 
Let  no  shot  be  fired  in  the  direction  of  the  city.  Let 
every  shot  be  for  the  en  cany  ;  and  let  every  one  cry, 
Vicu  hi  Republicat" 

At  two  o'clock,  the  attack  was  renewed  ;  but  after 
a  spirited  contest  of  two  hours,  the  French  were  com- 
pelled to  retreat. 

In  the  meantime,  M.  Frapold,  the  Roman  envoy 
at  Paris,  protested  in  the  name  of  his  government, 
against  the  interference  of  the  French  in  Italian 
affairs,  declaring  at  the  same  time,  that  his  govern- 
ment was  willing  to  accept  the  mediation  of  France. 
He  received  answer,  that  as  far  as  France  was  con- 
cerned, Rome  was  the  pope ;  and  that  France  inter- 
posed to  prevent  too  violent  a  revolution.  The  news 
of  Oudinot's  repulse  threw  Paris  into  an  uproar,  and 
gave  great  strength  to  the  republican  opposition  to 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  SIEGE.  175 

Bonaparte's  government.  But  the  president  declared 
that,  since  the  Romans  would  not  receive  the  French 
as  friends,  they  should  receive  them  as  foes:  and 
said  he  •would  send  re-enforcements  to  General  Oudi- 

QOt. 

On  the  13th  of  May,  the  French  army  attempted 
to  cross  into  Koine  by  a  bridge,  but  the  bridge  was 
blown  up,  and  the  assailants  desisted.  General  Ou- 
dinot  then  commenced  a  blockade.  which  was  main- 
tained until  early  in  June,  at  which  time  the  French 

•'led.  after  hard  fighting,  in   taking 
of  Villa    Pamfila,    the    church    of   St.    Pancras.   and 
other  points.     We    condense  from  General  Oudinot's 
official  report  the   account  of  h 

tions  up  to  the  litli  of  June.  "  On  the  4th,"  says  the 
general,  "  at  half-past  eight  in  the  evening,  the 
trenches  were  opened  at  a  distance  of  three  hundred 
metres  from  the  wall.  At  this  part  the  ground  i 
uneven.  ;'ind  covered  with  vines  and  hedges.  The 
tracing  of  the  parallel,  and  the  distribution  of  the 
workmen,  were  very  difficult  :  on  some  points  the 
work  could  not  be  undertaken  before  midnight.  At 
this  moment  1  ordered  a  feigned  attack  on  the  side 
of  Villa  Pamfila.  The  result  of  this  diversion  sur- 
passed my  hopes  ;  all  the  efforts  of  the  Romans  were 
turned  toward  the  gate  of  St.  Pancras,  which  they 
might  suppose  ;  uslv  menaced." 

The  French  continued   their  •  -  with  slow 

but  sure  success,  until  the  I:?1!),  when  General  Oudi- 
not  announced  to  the  Triu;u\ irate  his  intention  to 
take  the  city  by  storm,  lie  was  answered  that  the 
Vatican,  St.  Peter's,  and  the  palaces  of  the  nobility 
were  mined  mid  charged  with  powder  :  and  that  be- 
fore the  P  -Iiould  obtain  entrance,  the  be- 
sieged would  fire  those  works,  and  die  amid  their 
ruins.  The  attack  was  made  on  the  14th,  and  during 
that  day  and  the  next,  the  fire  of  cannon  and  mus- 
ketry was  incessant  :  on  the  15th.  Garibaldi  made  a 
sortie  with  fourteen  hundred  men,  but  was  driven 
back  with  loss  ;  yet  after  a  continuous  cannonade  of 


176  CAPITULATION'  OF  ROME. 

twenty-four  hours,  the   French  effected  no  available 
breach. 

General  Oudinot  continued  his  advances  upon  Rome 
until  '  of  -Jim?.  Home  spirited  attempts 

•were  made  upon  separate  points  of  the  defences  ; 
shells  and  other  missiles  wore  thrown  into  the  city ; 
and  the  garrison  was  repeatedly  summoned  to  sur- 
render, lint  notwithstanding  the  loss  of  their  pro- 
perty. t!i  '  i!. ^truction  of  many  monuments  of  art, 
and  their  personal  sufferings,  the  soldiery  and  inha- 
bitants still  persisted  in  their  resistance.  Early  in 
July,  the  Constituent  Assembly  unanimously  voted 
the  constitution  of  the  republic,  and  ordered  it  to  be 
deposited  in  the  capitol.  Th>>y  also  ordered  funeral 
is  to  he  celebrated  in  5  ;i's  for  those  who 

'ien  in  defence  of  the  republic. 

But  it  had  now  become  evident  that  further  resist- 
ance was  useless.  The  French  had  surrounded  the 
city  ;  their  cannon  pointed  tow;:  .  populated 

rs ;     the    garrison,    though    determined,    was 
small  ;  and   an  assault,  1>< 

ter,  would  in  all  probability  terminate  in  the  capture 
of  the  city  and  the  ruin  of  some  of  its  finest  monu- 
ments of  art.  To  pr.  b  a  calamity,  negotia- 
tions were  opened  with  the  French  ;  terms  of  c 
lation  were  signed;  and,  Rome  opened  her  ga: 
French  army.  At  the  same  time  Garibaldi  j 
through  the  city  with  ten  thousand  men,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  effecting  his  escape.  The  Assembly  an- 
nounced by  proclamation  the  arrival  of  the  French 
troops,  and  recommended  abstinence  from  all  ven- 
geance, denouncing  it  as  useless  and  unworthy  the 
dignity  of  Roman  citizens.  The  French  army  en- 
tered, July  3,  in  the  evening  ;  the  soldiers  cleared 
the  streets  of  barricades,  and  by  dark  the  troops  were 
consigned  to  their  various  quarters.  A  new  govern- 
ment was  formed  ;  the  troops  were  stationed  in  places 
favorable  for  suppressing  disturbances  :  some  compa- 
nies were  despatched  in  pursuit  of  Garibaldi. 

The  republic   established   by  the  Romans,   having1 


178  RESTORATION"  OF  THE  POPE. 

been  thus  overthrown  by  reckless  invaders,  the  pope 
•was  invited  to  return  to  resume  tho  government  ;  but 
several  months  elapsed  before  he  could  be  induced  to 
go  back  among  a  people  who  detested  his  authority 
and  watched  constantly  for  an  opportunity  of  throw- 
ing it  off.  lift  now  rules  in  Rome,  supported  by 
foreign  bayonets,  while  the  able  and  gallant  republi- 
cans who  were  chosen  to  conduct  the  government  aro 
in  exile.  Yet  Mazzini  remains  the  most  powerful 
man  among  the  Italians,  although  compelled  to  reside 
far  from  his  native  land  :  and  he  labors  steadily  for 
the  accomplishment  of  the  great  object  of  his  life — 
the  freedom  of  Italy. 


QUESTIONS 

FOR   THE 

EXAMINATION  OF  PUPILS. 


I.   Origin  of  the  Romans. — Founding  of  Rome. — Establishment 
of  the  Government  under  Romulus,     (p.  7.) 

FROM  whom  did  the  ancient  Romans  claim  their  origin?  When, 
is  the  taking  of  Troy  supposed  to  have  happened  ?  Who  founded 
the  settlement  of  Alba  ?  When  was  Rome  founded  by  Romulus  ? 
What  remarkable  events  took  place  in  other  parts  of  the  world 
about  the  same  time  ?  What  was  the  form  of  the  government 
established  by  Romulus?  What  was  the  senate?  What  were 
patricians  and  plebeians,  patrons  and  clients  ?  What  were  the 
offices  of  the  king  and  the  senate  ?  What  were  the  privileges  of 
the  people. 

II.    The  Kings  of  Rome,    (p.  10.) 

In  what  manner  did  Romulus  obtain  wives  for  his  subjects? 
What  was  the  consequence  of  the  seizure  of  the  Sabine  women  ? 
Who  governed  the  united  Romans  and  Sabines  ?  What  became 
of  Tstius  ?  What  was  the  fate  of  Romulus  ?'llow  long  did  he 
reign  ?  Who  succeeded  Romulus  ?  What  was  the  nature  of  the 
government  of  Numa  Pompilius,  and  the  length  of  his  reign  ? 
What  was  the  result  of  the  war  with  Alba?  What  were  the 
chief  events  in  the  reign  of  Tarquin,  and  what  was  his  fate? 
What  was  the  character  of  the  second  Tarquin  ?  What  became 
of  Tarquin  and  his  family  ?  What  hopes  did  he  entertain  I 

(179) 


180  QUESTIONS    FOR    EXAMINATION. 

III.  Formation  of  a  Republic. — Events  to  the  Dictatorship  of 

Cincinnatus.     (p.  16.) 

What  form  of  government  was  established  after  the  expulsion 
of  Tarquin  ?  What  were  the  chief  magistrates  called?  What 
conspiracy  was  formed  in  the  consulship  of  Brutus  ?  What 
caused  the  appointment  of  a  Dictator;  and  what  was  the  nature 
of  his  office  ?  What  gave  rise  to  the  appointment  of  Tribu.. 
the  People?  and  what  was  the  nature  of  this  office?  What  was 
the  story  of  Coriolanus  ?  What  occasion  ed  the  appointment  of 
Cincinnatus  as  Dictator .'  What  was  his  success  I  How  long  did 
he  hold  office  ?  What  is  said  of  the  senate  ? 

IV.  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables. — Decemviri. — Events  to  the 

Defeat  of  tke  Gauls  by  Camillas,     (p.  21.) 

What  were  the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tubles  ?  For  what  purpose 
were  the  Decemviri  appointed  ?  How  was  Veii  taken  ]  and  by 
whom  ?  How  was  Camillas  treated  by  the  people,  after  his  vic- 
tories ?  When  did  these  occurrences  take  place  ? 

V.    Wars  with  the  Samnitcs — with  Pyrrhtis,  king  of  Epirus — and 
with  the  Carthaginians. — Fall  of  Carthage,    (p. 

In  what  wars  were  the  Romans  engaged,  after  the  defeat  of  the 
Gauls?  What  were  the  chief  occurrences  in  the  war  with  Pyr- 
rhus  ?  When  did  the  first  war  with  Carthage  break  out  ?  What 
was  the  interval  between  the  first  and  second  Punic  wars  ?  What 
conquests  did  the  Romans  make  during  that  interval  ?  What 
caused  the  second  war  with  Carthage  ?  What  gave  rise  to  the  third 
Punic  war?  In  what  year  did  the  destruction  of  Carthage  lake 
place  ?  What  were  the  extent  and  population  of  Carthage? 

VI.    Conquests  of  IffR  Romans. — The  Gracchi. —  The  Cimbri  and 
Teutonef.—  The  Social  War.— Jlarius.— Sylla.     (p.  33.) 

What  were  the  principal  conquests  made  by  the  Romans,  after 
the  destruction  of  Carthage  ?  Who  were  the  Gracchi  ?  When 
did  the  invasion  of  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones  take  place  ?  What 
produced  the  Social  War?  and  how  was  it  terminated?  What 
was  the  conduct  of  Marius,  when  he  gained  the  advantage  over 
the  party  of  Sylla?  Who  was  Sylla?  How  long  was  he  Perpetual 


QUESTIONS    FOR    EXAMINATION.  181 

Dictator  ?  and  how  did  he  pass  the  latter  part  of  his  life  ?     When 
did  he  die  ? 

VII.  Catiline's  Conspiracy. — The  First  Triumvirate. — Civil  War 

between  C&sar  and  Pompey.    (p.  38.) 

What  was  the  object  of  Catiline's  conspiracy,  and  its  result  > 
What  proposal  did  Cn?sar  make  to  Pompey  and  Crassus  ?  and 
what  steps  did  they  take  in  consequence  of  it?  How  did  the  war 
between  C;esar  and  Pompey  arise?  What  was  the  fate  ot"  Pom- 
pey ?  How  did  Caesar  act  towards  Pompey 's  murderers  ?  What 
did  he  order  ? 

VIII.  Events  from  tiie  Defeat  of  Pompey' s  Party  to  the  Death  oj 

Antony,     (p.  42.) 

What  happened  to  Cssar  while  lie  remained  in  Egypt?  What 
was  his  last  military  expedition  ?  In  what  year  did  the  death  of 
Caesar  take  place  ?  What  took  place  in  Rome  in  consequence  of 
Caesar's  murder  ?  In  what  year  did  the  battle  of  Philippi  take 
place?  Who  took  the  command  against  Antony,  when  war  was 
declared  against  him  by  the  senate  ?  What  took  place  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Actium  ?  What  was  the  fate  of  Antony,  and  that  of  Cleo- 
patra ?  When  did  she  die  ? 

IX.   Augustus. — Tiberius. — Caligula. — Claudiu*.     (p.  50.) 

In  what  year  did  Octavius  become  emperor?  When  did  Au- 
gustus close  the  temple  of  Janus  ?  What  was  the  meaning  of  that 
ceremony  ?  What  great  event  took  place  in  Judaea  during  this 
period  of  universal  peace  ?  What  was  the  fate  of  Quintiliui 
Varus?  What  was  its  effect  on  the  mind  of  Augustus  ?  Who 
were  Tiberius  and  Drusus  ?  How  did  Caligula  govern  at  the  be- 
ginning of  his  reign  ?  What  remarkable  instances  are  mentioned 
of  his  extravagance,  rapacity,  and  cruelty  ?  \|"hat  was  his  fate  ? 
How  old  was  Claudius  when  he  began  to  reign?  What  was  the 
character  of  Agrippina  ?  What  caused  the  death  of  Claudius? 
When  did  he  die  ? 

X.   Nero.    (p.  59.) 

Who  succeeded  Claudius  ?    What  remarkable  event  happened 
in  the  eleventh  year  of  Nero's  reign  '    How  did  Nero  act  during 
16 


182  QUESTIONS   FOR   EXAMINATION. 

the  burning  of  Rome  ?  How  were  the  Christians  treated  ?  What 
were  the  circumstances  attending  the  death  of  Nero  ?  When  did 
he  die  ? 

XI.   Galba.— Otho.— Vitellius.     (p.  64.) 

How  old  was  Galba  when  he  began  to  reign  ?  How  did  Otho 
begin  his  reign  ?  Who  was  proclaimed  emperor  on  the  death  of 
Otho  ?  How  did  Vitellius  act  on  his  entrance  into  Rome  ?  What 
was  his  character?  What  were  the  circumstances  of  the  death 
of  Vitellius?  When  did  he  die?  How  long  did  he  reign  ? 

XII.    Vespasian. — Titus. — Domitian.    (p.  68.) 

Who  was  proclaimed  emperor  after  the  death  of  Vitellius  ? 
How  did  Vespasian  reign  ?  What  remarkable  events  took  place 
during  his  reign  ?  How  long  did  he  reign  ?  and  by  whom  was  he 
succeeded?  What  was  the  character  of  Titus  ?  What  calamities 
happened  in  Italy  during  his  reign  ?  What  great  writer  perished 
in  consequence  of  the  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius  '  How  long 
did  Titus  reign  ?  Who  succeeded  Titus  ?  What  was  the  charac- 
ter of  Domitian  ?  How  did  Domitian  treat  the  Jews  and  Chris- 
tians ?  What  were  the  circumstances  of  Domitiari's  death  ? 
Whom  did  the  senate  choose  for  his  successor  ? 

XIII.   Nerva. — Trajan. — Adrian. — Antoninus  Pius. — Marcus 
Aurcliui. — Commodus.     (p.  72.) 

Of  what  country  was  Nerva  ?  and  what  was  his  character?  Of 
what  country  was  Trajan  ?  What  was  his  chief  failing  ?  and  what 
were  its  consequences?  In  what  manner  did  he  treat  the  Chris- 
tians ?  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  ?  What  was  Adrian's  cha- 
racter? What  did  Adrian  do  during  his  residence  in  Britain? 
What  put  a  stop  to  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  ?  By  whom 
was  Adrian  succeeded  ?  What  was  the  character  of  Antoninus 
Pius  ?  What  name  did  Marcus  Aurelius  assume  on  succeeding  to 
the  empire  ?  Whom  did  he  join  with  him  in  the  government? 
In  what  year  did  Marcus  Aurelius  die  '  What  was  the  character 
of  Commodus?  What  was  his  fate  ?  How  long  did  he  reign  ? 

XIV.  Emperort  from  Pertinar,  to  Probus.    (p.  78.) 

Who  was  chosen  emperor  on  the  death  of  Commodus  ?  What 
was  the  cause  of  his  death  ?  Who  succeeded  Pertinax  ?  In  what 


QVEST1ONS    FOB    EXAMINATION.  183 

manner  did  Didius  Julianus  obtain  the  empire  ?  How  did  he 
govern  ?  What  was  his  fate  ?  How  old  was  Septimius  Severus 
when  he  became  emperor  ?  What  was  the  character  of  Severus  1 
Who  succeeded  him  I  What  became  of  Geta  ?  What  was  the 
character  of  Carscalla  ?  What  was  the  manner  of  his  death  ? 
WTho  succeeded  Caracalla  ?  WTho  succeeded  Macrinus  \  What 
was  the  character  of  Heliogabalus  ?  and  what  became  of  him  ? 
Who  succeeded  him  ?  What  was  the  character  of  Alexander 
Severus  I  How  did  he  treat  the  Christians  ?  What  was  his  fate  ? 
Who  succeeded  Alexander  Severus  ?  What  was  the  character  of 
Maximinus  ?  Who  were  the  successive  emperors  down  to  Vale- 
rian ?  How  many  pretenders  to  the  empire  were  there  at  one 
time,  during  the  reign  of  Gallienus  ?  Who  succeeded  Gallienus ! 
How  did  Flavius  Claudius  conduct  himself?  What  caused  the 
death  of  Aurelian  ?  For  what  was  Probus  distinguished  ?  What 
was  the  manner  of  his  death  ?  How  long  did  he  reign  ? 

XV.    From  Probus  to  the  Fall  of  the  Empire,    (p.  83.) 

Who  succeeded  Probus  ?  What  was  the  fate  of  Carinus  and 
Numerianus  ?  WThat  were  the  chief  events  of  Dioclesian's  reign  ? 
When  did  the  accession  of  Constantine  take  place  ?  What  other 
memorable  circumstance  took  place  in  his  reign  ?  Against  what 
nation  did  Constantius  undertake  an  expedition  ?  For  what  act  is 
the  memory  of  Julian  most  remarkable  ?  What  became  of  him ' 
What  remarkable  act  did  Jovian  perform?  Who  succeeded 
Jovian  ?  What  great  event  took  place  in  the  reign  of  Valen- 
tinian  ?  Whom  did  Gratian  make  his  partner  in  the  government ' 
WThat  became  of  the  usurper  Maximus  ?  Who  succeeded  Theo- 
dosius  in  the  western,  and  who  in  the  eastern  empire?  Who 
invaded  the  empire  on  the  death  of  Theodosius?  When  did 
Honorius  die  ?  and  how  long  did  he  rei^n  ?  Who  invaded  the 
empire  in  the  reign  of  Valentinian  ?  What  became  of  Aetius? 
What  was  the  fate  of  Valentinian  ?  Who  invited  Genseric,  king 
of  the  Vandals,  to  invade  Italy  ?  and  for  what  reason  ?  Who  suc- 
ceeded Maximus?  By  whom  was  Avitus  deposed?  Who  go- 
verned Italy  on  the  deposition  of  Avitus  ?  Who  was  afterward* 
raised  to  the  empire  ?  In  what  year  did  Majorian  become  empe- 
ror Z  What  were  the  chief  events  of  his  reign  ?  Who  assumed 


184  QUESTIONS    FOR    EXAMINATION. 

the  government  after  his  death?  What  induced  Ricimer  to  ap- 
ply fur  assistance  to  the  emperor  of  the  East?  Whom  did  Leo, 
the  Eastern  emperor,  make  emperor  of  the  West  ?  What  became 
of  Anthemius?  What  were  the  names  of  the  last  emperors  of  the 
West?  What  produced  the  dethronement  of  the  last  emperor, 
and  the  fall  of  the  empire  ? 

XVI.   The  Eastern  Empire  from  Baslliscus  till  the  Fall  of 
Belisarius.     (p.  96.) 

Who  now  usurped  the  EisJcrn  empire?  Whither  did  Zeno 
fly  ?  By  whom  was  he  pursued,  and  with  what  success  ?  By 
what  means  was  he  restored  to  the  throne?  What  became  of 
Basiliscus  ?  When  did  this  happen  ?  What  calamity  occurred  at 
Constantinople  during  this  usurpation  ?  What  was  the  course  of 
Zeno's  after  life?  \Vhat  was  his  success  in  the  war  with  the  Os- 
trogoths ?  What  prevented  the  Ostrogoths  from  besieging  Con- 
stantinople ?  When  did  Zeno  die  ?  What  was  now  the  state  of 
the  Roman  empire?  What  were  the  principal  causes  of  this  de- 
cline? When  did  Justin  ascend  the  throne?  With  whom  did  he 
engage  in  war?  Who  was  Justinian  ?  When  did  he  ascend  the 
throne?  Give  an  account  of  the  battle  of  Dara.  Who  com- 
manded the  Roman  army  ?  What  was  his  success  in  the  next 
campaign  ?  When  was  peace  concluded ;  and  on  what  terms  ? 
Give  an  account  of  the  tumult  which  happened  at  Constantinople 
about  this  time.  Who  saved  the  empire  ?  What  was  done  by 
Belisarius?  What  was  the  fate  of  the  usurper?  Whntwasdone 
by  Belisarius  in  Africa  ?  Describe  his  triumph.  What  was  the 
conduct  of  Gelimer?  How  was  Belisarius  rewarded  for  his  ser- 
vices in  Africa  ?  Against  whom  was  he  sent  in  537  ?  What  was 
his  success?  How  was  he -received  at  Rome'  How  did  the 
Goths  spend  the  winter?  What  rendered  the  approach  of  the 
Goths  to  Rome  easy'  Into  what  danger  did  Belisarius  fall? 
Describe  the  combat  Of  what  imprudence  were  the  Romans 
guilty?  What  was  the  consequence?  How  did  the  Romans 
finally  triumph?  How  did  the  Goths  advance  to  the  assault  of  the 
city?  How  was  the  defence  commenced?  What  followed  this 
exhibition  of  the  skill  of  the  Roman  general  ?  How  did  Vitigea 
continue  the  assault?  What  was  the  conduct  of  Belisarius T 
What  the  remit  of  the  attack  ?  What  was  afterwards  the  charac- 


QUESTIONS    FOR    EXAMINATION.  1S5 

ter  of  the  Gothic  operations  ?  How  long  was  the  sie^e  main- 
tained ?  What  hastened  the  retreat  of  Vitiges  ?  Describe  his  re- 
treat What  is  known  of  the  strength  of  this  flying  army  ?  By 
whom  was  Rimini  defended  ?  What  forced  the  Goths  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Rimini?  How  did  Vitiges  escape?  What  occasioned 
the  recal  of  Belisarius  from  Italy  ?  What  were  the  terms  of  t'ne 
peace  concluded  with  Persia?  What  caused  the  renewal  of  the 
war?  How  long  did  it  continue?  How  did  the  emperor  then 
purchase  peace  ?  \Vhat  other  enemy  now  approached  Constanti- 
nople ?  What  was  the  last  exploit  of  Belisarius  ?  What  means 
did  the  emperor  take  to  prevent  the  Huns  from  again  invading  the 
empire  ?  What  happened  to  Belisarius  on  his  return  ?  What 
happened  in  the  year  565  ?  W'hen  did  Justinian  die  ?  When  was 
Italy  conquered  by  the  Lombards  ?  How  long  did  they  hold  it? 
What  in  some  measure  compensated  the  Romans  for  the  loss  of 
Italy  ?  To  what  did  the  revolt  of  the  Persamenians  lead  ?  Bj 
whom  were  both  nations  reduced  ?  When  did  the  Saracens  at- 
tack the  Romans?  What  was  their  success  during  the  first  four 
years  of  the  war  ?  Of  what  places  were  they  the  masters  in  648  ? 
On  what  terms  did  they  conclude  a  peace  ?  What  was  the  suc- 
cess of  the  expedition  against  the  Lombards?  What  was  done  by 
the  Saracens  in  671  ?  What  place  did  they  besiege  the  next 
year  ?  Were  they  repulsed  ?  On  what  conditions  was  a  peace 
concluded  ?  For  what  time  ? 

XVII.   The  Bulgarians  and  Saracens  invade  the  Empire,  (p.  109.) 

What  new  enemy  now  invaded  the  Roman  empire  ?  How  did 
the  emperor  avoid  the  war  ?  Wrhere  did  they  settle  ?  When  and 
in  what  way  did  the  emperor  violate  the  treaty  ?  What  success 
attended  him?  When  was  Justinian  II.  deposed?  Whither  did 
he  retire  ?  How  was  he  received  ?  How  did  he  repay  the  hos- 
pitality of  the  Bulgarians?  What  was  his  success  this  time? 
How  long  did  the  Bulgarians  continue  their  inroads?  How  did 
tlu>y  treat  the  garrison  of  Sardica?  Who  marched  against  them  ? 
What  was  his  conduct  in  Bulgaria?  How  did  these  cruelties 
affect  the  king  ?  How  did  the  emperor  receive  his  proposals  for 
a  peace?  What  was  the  consilience  ?  Who  succeeded  N'ice- 
phonis  ?  How  did  he  carry  on  i/,c  Bulgarian  war?  When  were 
tl.tv  Mta<  !;•  i  by  B^s.lius  II. '  Who  governed  the  Bulgarians  then? 
10* 


185  QUESTIONS   FOR   EXAMINATION. 

Who  was  sent  against  him  ?  Where  did  Uranus  come  up  with 
the  enemy  ?  How  did  he  succeed  in  surprising  them  ?  What  did 
he  effect  ?  How  did  Samuel  escape  ?  What  was  done  by  the 
emperor  in  the  following  year?  Into  what  areat  danger  did  he 
soon  after  fall  ?  How  was  the  Roman  army  relieved  ?  How  did 
the  emperor  treat  his  prisoners?  What  was  the  effect  of  this 
cruelty  upon  Samuel?  How  was  Bulgaria  finally  conquered? 
Who  of  the  royal  family  refused  to  submit  ?  Who  undertook  to 
secure  him?  In  what  way  did  he  accomplish  it?  How  did  he 
save  himself  from  the  just  fury  of  the  people  ?  How  was  he  re- 
warded by  the  emperor?  How  was  he  received  at  Constantino- 
ple ?  What  rendered  the  Saracens  less  formidable  at  this  time 
than  formerly? 

XVIII.   The  Turks  invade  the  Empire,     (p.  114.) 

When  did  the  Turks  invade  the  empire?  Give  an  account  of 
their  origin.  What  was  the  effect  of  the  victory  of  Tangrolipix 
over  the  Persians  ?  What  country  did  Tangrolipix  then  annex  to 
his  dominions  ?  What  was  done  by  Cultu-Moscs  ?  With  what 
success  did  the  Turks  meet  in  Arabia  ?  What  in  Media  ?  What 
place  was  besieged  by  Tangrolipix  ?  How  was  it  reduced  ?  What 
was  the  result  of  the  battle  between  the  Romans  and  Halim? 
Who  was  taken  prisoner  I  What  was  consequently  done  by  the 
emperor  ?  How  were  the  Tnrkish  ambassadors  received  at  Con- 
stantinople ?  What  was  the,  consequence  ?  Describe  the  siege 
of  Alcan  ?  What  was  done  by  Tangrolipix  the  next  spring? 
Why  were  the  frontier  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire  unable  to 
defend  themselves?  When  did  Constantine  Ducas  die?  To 
whom  did  he  leave  the  empire?  Who  was  appointed  regent! 
Under  what  oaths  ?  What  was  done  by  the  Turks  when  they 
heard  of  his  death  ?  Why  was  Eudoxia  unable  to  oppose  the 
Turks  1  In  what  way  did  she  determine  to  avert  the  evils  which 
threatened  her  ?  Relate  the  story  of  Romanus  Diogenes.  How 
did  Eudoxia  procure  her  absolution  from  the  oath  imposed  on 
her  by  Constantine  ?  How  did  the  patriarch  proceed  ?  Whom 
did  the  empress  marry?  What  was  his  conduct  on  being  raised 
to  absolute  power?  With  what  success  did  he  meet  as  he  was 
returning  ?  What  did  he  do  in  the  following  year  •!  How  did  the 
Armenians  aid  him?  \1hat  occurred  in  the  following  spring? 


QUESTIONS    FOR    EXAMINATION.  H7 

Mow  w.is  Rotnanns  treated  by  Axan  ?  What  news  did  he  hearon 
his  w.iy  to  Constantinople  ?  To  what  place  did  he  retire  ?  Who 
was  stiit  against  him?  How  did  he  succeed  in  his  enterprise? 
How  did  John  treat  the  captive  Romanus?  What  was  then  done 
by  Aian?  What  drew  the  attention  of  John  Ducas  frnm  the 
Turkish  invasion  ?  What  was  the  result  of  the  engagement  with 
the  rebels  I  What  division  now  existed  in  the  Turkish  empire? 
To  what  agreement  did  the  two  princes  Bnallvcome  ?  What  was 
their  united  success  in  the  invasion  of  the  Roman  empire?  What 
was  the  condition  of  the  empire  during  this  time  ?  Who  became 
emperor  in  1077?  What  did  he  do  before  selling  out  against  the 
Turks?  Why  did  he  conclude  a  peace  with  the  Turks? 

A/.Y.   The  Eastern  Empire  until  the  plundering  of  Constantino- 
ple by  the  Latins,     (p.  124.) 

Who  was  Robert  Guiscard  ?  What  was  his  character?  Give 
an  account  of  his  actions  before  his  invasion  of  the  Eastern  em- 
pire. What  led  him  to  that  invasion?  Who  opposed  him  at  Du- 
razzo  ?  Describe  the  sea-fight.  What  calamities  befel  the  be- 
siegers? Who  attempted  to  relieve  the  city?  Give  an  account 
of  his  defeat.  What  was  the  result  of  the  siege?  To  what  place 
did  Bohemond  next  lay  siege  ?  What  obliged  him  to  return  to 
Italy?  How  did  Alexius  take  advantage  of  his  absence?  What 
naval  engagements  ensued?  What  put  an  end  to  the  war?  Relate 
the  events  of  the  first  year  of  the  Scythian  war.  Of  the  second 
year  The  third.  The  fourth.  When  did  they  again  invade  the 
empire?  What  was  their  success?  What  now  threatened  the 
ruin  of  the  Turkish  nation?  What  prevented  the  complete  suc- 
cess of  the  Crusaders?  Who  succeeded  Alexius  Comnenus? 
What  was  his  character  and  that  of  his  government  ?  To  what 
object  did  he  direct  his  arms  ?  With  what  success  ?  Relate  the 
manner  of  his  death.  Who  succeeded  him  ?  Who  was  thrown 
into  prison  by  John?  How  long  was  he  there  confin. 
what  means  did  be  secure  the  society  of  his  wife?  By  what 
means  did  he  at  length  escape  from  prison  ?  Where  was  he  re- 
captured, and  how  did  he  manage  to  extricate  himself?  How  did 
he  obtain  his  pardon  from  Manuel?  What  was  his  conduct  on 
the  death  of  Manuel?  By  whom  was  he  deposed  ?  Relate  the 
manner  of  his  death.  Who  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Trebitond 


188  QUESTIONS    FOtt    EXAMINATION. 

and  Constantinople?  What  happened  at  Constantinople  in  1203! 
What  occasioned  it,  and  what  was  its  effect  ?  Who  succeeded 
Isaac  Angelas  ?  In  what  way  did  John  Ducas  usurp  the  throne? 
What  was  now  determined  upon  by  the  Latins?  When  did  they 
make  a  general  assault  on  the  city  ?  With  what  success?  When 
did  they  renew  the  attack?  Describe  the  capture  of  Constantino 
pie  by  the  Latins  ?  What  happened  on  the  next  day  ?  What  be- 
came of  Mourzoufle  ? 

XX.  The  Eastern  Empire  from  the  Capture  of  Constantinople  by 
the  Latins  till  the  accession  of  Andronicus  to  the  throne,  (p.  135.) 

Who  was  elected  emperor  by  the  Latins  ?  What  was  the  fate 
of  Mourzoufle?  Of  Alexius?  Who  was  Theodore  Lascaris  ?  What 
fragment  of  the  empire  did  he  preserve  ?  By  whom  was  Tre- 
bizond  preserved?  What  was  saved  by  Michael  Angelus?  How 
were  the  Greeks  treated  by  the  Latins  ?  To  what  places  did  they 
withdraw  ?  What  was  done  by  the  Bulgarians  ?  Who  succeeded 
Baldwin?  When  did  Henry  die ?  Who  succeeded  him?  What 
happened  to  Peter  in  Epirus  ?  How  long  did  Constantinople  re- 
main subject  to  the  Latins  ?  By  whom  were  they  expelled  ?  What 
led  him  to  attempt  the  capture  of  Constantinople?  What  was  his 
success?  What  was  the  conduct  of  Baldwin?  How  did  the 
Emperor  Pakeologus  receive  the  news?  Describe  his  progress 
and  triumph  ?  What  allayed  the  joy  of  the  emperor?  How  did 
he  reward  Alexius  ?  What, means  did  he  take  to  re-people  the 
city  ?  What  caused  an  alteration  in  these  regulations  ?  By  what 
act  of  inhumanity  did  Palaeologus  endeavour  to  secure  the  throne 
to  himself?  In  what  troubles  did  this  treachery  involve  him 
How  did  he  succeed  in  diverting  the  storm  for  a  time?  When  did 
he  die;  and  by  whom  was  he  succeeded  ?  How  did  Andronicus 
immediately  throw  the  empire  into  another  ferment? 

XXI.  Another  War  toith  the  Turks,  whofnally  capture  Constan- 
tinople, and  put  an  end  to  the  Eastern  Roman  Empire,   (p.  143.) 

How  had  the  Turks  carried  on  the  war  ?  What  places  did  they 
capture?  Who  was  sent  against  them  ?  What  was  the  conduct 
of  Philanthropenus?  What  was  the  effect  of  that  revolt  upon  the 
emperor?  Whom  did  he  hire  to  assist  him?  What  was  the 
conduct  of  the  Massagates  and  the  Catalans  ?  When  did  th« 


QUESTIONS    FOR    EXAMINATION.  189 

Turks  first  make  their  appearance  in  Europe  ?  What  prevented 
them  from  retiring  to  Asia  ?  How  were  they  finally  rooted  out  ? 
What  conquests  did  the  Turks  make  hi  1327  ?  When  and  upon 
what  condition  was  a  peace  concludi.-d  ?  When  did  the  Turks 
again  commence  hostilities  ?  How  did  Amurath  extend  the  con- 
quests of  his  predecessors?  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  ?  What 
conquests  did  Bajazet  make?  What  message  did  he  send  to  the 
Greek  emperor;  Was  he  obliged  to  comply?  What  induced 
Bajazet  to  besiege  the  city?  Who  came  10  the  assistance  of 
Manuel?  What  agreement  did  Bajazet  make  with  Manuel's 
nephew?  What  message  did  he  send  to  Constantinople?  How 
did  Manuel  prevent  the  mischiefs  which  were  likely  to  ensue? 
What  did  Manuel  then  do?  How  did  John  keep  his  promise? 
How  was  Constantinople  preserved  for  a  time  ?  Wht-n  and  by 
whom  was  the  city  again  besieged  ?  What  obliged  him  to  raise 
the  siege?  What  places  were  next  plundered  by  Amurath? 
How  was  he  received  at  Belgrade  ?  By  whom  was  he  attacked 
in  his  retreat  ?  What  successes  did  Hunniades  pain  in  Transyl- 
vania ?  What  happened  to  him  in  1448?  How  did  the  emperor 
now  endeavour  to  secure  the  safety  of  the  empire  ?  When  did 
the  emperor  die  ?  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  ?  When  did  the 
sultan  die  ?  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  ?  What  led  to  the  siege 
of  Constantinople  by  Mohammed?  When  was  the  siege  com- 
menced? How  did  the  emperor  secure  the  haven  ?  How  did  the 
eultan  commence  the  siege  ?  What  was  the  force  of  the  besiegers  ? 
What  that  of  the  besieged  ?  What  enraged  the  sultan,  and  brought 
joy  to  the  Christians  ?  How  did  Mohammed  gain  command  of  the 
haven  ?  What  offer  was  made  by  Constantine  ?  What  by  Mo- 
hammed ?  Was  either  of  them  accepted  ?  What  happened  in 
the  Turkish  camp  on  the  25th  of  May  ?  How  were  the  mutineers 
appeased  ?  How  did  Constantine  answer  the  summons  to  sur- 
render ?  What  was  the  plan  of  attack,  and  when  did  it  commence  ? 
Describe  the  assault.  What  was  the  fate  of  Constantine  !  What 
was  the  conduct  of  the  Turks  after  all  opposition  had  ceased  ? 
How  did  a  few  of  the  inhabitants  contrive  to  escape?  How  long 
was  the  pillage  and  massacre  continued  ?  When  did  Mohammed 
make  his  triumphal  entry  into  Constantinople  ?  Of  what  empire 
has  it  since  been  the  capital  ? 


190  QUESTIONS   FOR   EXAMINATION. 

XXII.  Foundation  of  the  Papal  dominion,  and  succession  of 
the  Popes,     (p.  15-1.) 

"When  was  Charlemagne  crowned  Emperor  of  the  Romans  ? 
What  new  power  had  gradually  arisen  in  Rome  ?  What  rank 
had  the  bishop  of  Rome  held  from  the  end  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury ?  How  did  the  popes  obtain  jurisdiction  over  foreign 
dioceses  ?  What  did  the  synod  of  Sardica  and  Valentinian 
III.  acknowledge  ?  Until  what  period  did  the  measures  of 
the  popes  meet  with  violent  opposition  ?  What  circumstance 
opened  the  way  to  the  supreme  control  of  the  papal  power 
over  the  churches  ?  What  is  said  of  Gregory  I.  ?  Of  Leo 
III.  ?  What  is  said  of  the  story  of  the  female  pope,  Johanna, 
or  Joan  ?  What  victory  did  pope  Nicholas  I.  achieve?  What 
did  pope  John  VIII.  do  with  the  imperial  crown?  When? 
During  what  period  was  the  papal  see  extremely  corrupt  ? 
What  concealed  the  scandal  of  its  deeds?  What  is  said  of 
pope  Sylvester  II.?  What  troubles  opened  a  field  for  the  am- 
bition of  the  popes  ?  By  what  constitution  did  they  establish 
their  independence  of  the  people  of  Rome?  What  is  snid  of 
Gregory  VII.  ?  Of  Urban  II.  ?  Of  Alexander  III.  ?  What 
is  said  of  Innocent  III.  ?  How  did  the  great  popes  unite  the 
clergy  of  western  and  central  Europe  to  the  papal  see?  What 
did  they  obtain  by  means  of  legates  and  nuncios  ?  How  did 
they  gain  complete  dominion  over  the  church  ?  How  did 
they  use  the  orders  of  monks  ?  What  did  Pepin,  king  of  the 
Franks,  grant  to  the  pope?  What  did  the  pope  become  in 
consequence?  What  rule  did  Innocent  III.  establish  in  1198? 
What  kingdom  became  tributary  to  the  papal  see  ?  What 
pope  first  dared  to  proclaim  and  depose  kings  ?  What  did  the 
emperor  Otho  IV.  call  himself?  What  new  titles  were  given 
to  kings?  Why  was  popery  called  universal  monarchy  in  the 
day  of  Innocent  III.  ?  How  did  this  priestly  government  do 
good  ?  What  kingdom  first  successfully  resisted  the  authority 
of  the  popes  ?  In  whom  did  Boniface  VIII.  find  a  master  ? 
Daring  what  period  did  the  popes  remain  under  French  influ- 


QUESTIONS    FOR    EXAMINATION.  191 

encc?  What  two  rival  popes  appeared  in  1378?  What 
countries  became  involved  in  the  struggle  ?  What  abuses 
gave  rise  to  much  complaint?  How  was  the  great  schism 
ended  ?  Were  the  abuses  corrected  ?  Who  rendered  decrees 
of  reform  nugatory  ?  How  did  he  gain  the  friendship  of 
France  ?  Who  effected  the  coneordate  of  Vienna  ?  Who  was 
chosen  pope  in  1458  ?  What  privileges  did  the  popes  obtain 
by  the  coneordate  of  Vienna?  What  was  the  common  pre- 
text for  extortion  ?  What  rival  parties  compelled  the  popes 
to  purchase  their  favor  ?  What  is  said  of  pope  Alexander  VI.  ? 
How  did  Julius  II.  employ  his  powers  ?  Who  sought  to  unite 
the  papal  and  imperial  crowns?  Did  he  succeed?  What 
circumstance  increased  the  political  importance  of  the  pope 
towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century?  Who  now  headed 
an  opposition  to  the  papal  authority  ?  What  did  the  council 
of  Trent  ratify  ?  What  society  appeared  as  guards  and  mis- 
sionaries of  the  pope  ?  What  is  said  of  Clement  VII.  ?  What 
territories  did  Paul  III.  gain  for  his  family  ?  What  act  of 
moderation  did  Pius  IV.  perform  ?  What  is  said  of  Pius  V.  ? 
What  great  work  did  Gregory  XIII.  give  to  the  world?  What 
state  was  added  to  the  papal  dominions  by  Clement  VIII.  ? 
What  is  said  of  Urban  VIII.  ?  Did  these  great  men  restore 
the  old  papal  authority  ?  What  circumstances  diminished 
the  political  power  of  the  popes?  What  creed  took  from  the 
popes  a  considerable  part  of  the  Netherlands  ?  How  were 
their  bulls  treated  ?  Where  did  the  popes  become  objects  of 
ridicule?  What  is  said  of  Lambertini  and  Ganganelli?  What 
misfortunes  befell  Pius  VI.  ?  How  did  Bonaparte  humiliate 
Pius  VII.  ?  To  whom  did  he  owe  his  restoration  ?  What 
measures  did  he  then  adopt?  What  was  the  principal  maxim 
of  the  Roman  court?  What  practice  of  the  popes  was  dis- 
covered in  1809  ?  What  instances  of  mental  reservation  on 
the  part  of  the  popes  are  mentioned  ?  What  intolerant  de- 
claration did  Pius  VII.  put  forth  ?  Who  succeeded  him  ? 
Who  succeeded  Pius  VIII.  ?  When,  and  under  what  title, 
did  John  de  Ferrati  succeed  to  the  papal  chair  ? 


192  QUESTIONS    FOR    EXAMINATION. 

XXIII.    The  Revolution  ,.f  lS4S-'49.  (p.  167.) 

What  wore  the  objects  of  t!i->  liberal  organization  in  Italy? 
What  success  had  the  attempts  of  the  liberals  at  revolution 
met  with  ?     How  did  they  regard  Pius  IX.  ?     What  did  the 
pope  grant  ?     What  did  he  refuse  ?     How  was  he  then  stig- 
matized ?     When  and  where  did  a  crowd  assemble  in  Rome  ? 
How  did  Count  Rossi  treat  the  people  ?     What  was  the  imme- 
diate consequence  ?     What   chorus   was   then   sung   in    the 
streets?     For  what  was  the  death  of  Rossi  the  signal?     How 
did  the  revolution  commence?     What  points  of  concession 
did   the  people   demand  ?      What   did  the  pope   announce  ? 
What  was  Pius  IX.  compelled  to  grant?     AVhat  rnensures  did 
the  English  and  French  adopt  for  the  protection  of  the  pon- 
tiff?    To  what  measure  did  the  pope  and  his  cardinal  now 
have  recourse?    By  whom  was  Pius  IX.  entertained  ?     Who 
solicited  his  return  ?     What  act  was  passed  by  the  Chambers 
upon  the  pope's  refusal  ?     What  legislative  body  succeeded 
the  Chambers  ?    How  was  the  termination  of  the  papal  dy- 
nasty announced  ?    What  event  had  occurred  on  the  24th  of 
November,  1800  ?     What  kind  of  an  executive  did  the  Assem- 
bly elect?    Who  was  the  most  active  member  of  the  Trium- 
virate ?    What  general  was  his  aid  ?    Who  resolved  to  crush 
the  Roman  republic  ?    When  did  the  French  expedition  sail  ? 
Who  commanded  the  forces  ?     Where  did  they  land?     What 
did  Oudinot  state  in  his  proclamation  ?    How  did  the  Romans 
act  ?     What  measures  did  the  Assembly  adopt  on  the  24th 
of  April?    How  did  the  people  act?    When  did  the  French 
arrive  before  the  city  ?     Who  commanded  the  Romans  ?    De- 
scribe the  attack  at  the  Porta  Cavallagieri  ?    What  was  the 
result  ?    What  proclamation  was  now  issued  by  the  Trium- 
virate ?    Who  protested  against  the  interference  of  the  French 
in  Italian  affairs  ?     What  answer  did  he  receive?    What  de- 
claration did  President  Bonaparte  now  make  ?    What  occurred 
on  the  13th  of  May  ?  What  did  Gen.  Oudinot  then  commence? 
How  long  was  the  blockade  maintained?    What  occurred  on 


QUESTIONS   FOR   EXAMINATION.  193 

the  4th  of  June?  When  did  the  French  general  announce 
his  intention  of  taking  the  city  by  storm  ?  What  was  the 
reply  of  the  Triumvirate  ?  AVhat  occurred  on  the  14th?  What 
sortie  was  made  on  the  loth  ?  Until  what  time  did  General 
Oudinot  continue  his  advances  upon  Rome  ?  How  did  the 
Romans  sustain  the  attack  ?  What  did  the  Constituent  As- 
sembly vote  in  July  ?  Why  were  negotiations  opened  ?  What 
was  the  result?  Who  escaped?  What  did  the  Assembly 
announce  ?  When  did  the  French  army  enter  Rome  ?  What 
followed  ?  How  long  was  it  before  the  pope  could  be  induced 
to  return  to  Rome  ?  What  is  said  of  his  authority?  What  is 
said  of  Mazzini  ? 


IICSB  LIBRARY" 


